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: The BSCW system is a Web based groupware tool for asynchronous and synchronous cooperation. We describe the system and the experiences we made with it serving as the backbone of a virtual learning environment for students. The field study took place in summer 1998. It demonstrated the usefulness of the system for students and teachers as well as the need for further research and socio-technical redesign. 1.
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Designing an Interactive Learning Environment to Support Children's
Understanding in Complex Domains
Marcelo Milrad
The Institute for Media Technology (IMT)
Box 450, 551 16 Jönköping
Sweden
E-mail: marcelo.milrad@tm.imt.se
Background
Current and emerging technological advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) make it
possible to develop interactive learning environments to support new ways of learning. Interactive learning
environments (ILEs) are having an increasing role in teaching and learning and are likely to play an important
role in the future (Wasson, 1997). In particular those tools that encourage and enhance discovery, creativity,
thinking and expression are very much needed. The main point of our research focuses within the design of an
ILE to support learning in complex domains for young learners. We argue that because children are learning
for real life and preparing to solve real complex problems in the future, the complexity of the world should be
taken into account much more and much earlier than usually happens.
Interactive Learning Environments and Learning Theories
Emerging trends in education are increasingly moving towards learner-centered approaches. In these, learning
becomes an active process of discovery and participation based on self-motivation rather than on more passive
acquaintance of facts and rules (Sfard, 1998). The role of the teacher is coming more to be seen as mentor or
guide, facilitating and playing an essential role in this process. From this perspective, learning can be
considered as a dynamic process in which the learner actively "constructs" new knowledge as he or she is
engaged and immersed in a learning activity (Papert, 1993). The theory of constructivism is at the core of the
movement to shift the center of instruction away from delivery in order to allow the learner to actively direct
and choose a personal learning path. Jonassen (1998) claims that designers committed to designing and
implementing constructivist learning environments need an appropriate set of design tools and methods which
are consistent with the fundamental assumptions of those environments for analyzing learning outcomes and
designing constructivist learning environments.
Our approach to the design of ILEs is to strike a proper balance between the constructionist (Resnick, 1996)
and the instructionism learning approaches. Moreover, we are attempting to explore the design implications of
learning theories such as constructivism and socioculturism (Nardi, 1996) that have heretofore received less
attention than, say, behaviorism (upon which computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is built) and cognitive
psychology (upon which intelligent tutoring systems are built). These two theoretical perspectives are
consistent with each other; they just emphasize different themes: the former speaks to the individual's
cognition, while the latter speaks to the contributions of the surroundings to that cognition. From socio-
constructivism, then, guidelines for the design of learning environments and the supporting scaffolding can be
developed.
Designing an Interactive Learning Environment to Support Children's Understanding
of Complexity
One of the purposes with this research is to develop an interactive learning environment to support children's
understanding in the domains of environmental sciences and ecology. The basic assumption is that
environmental issues will become increasingly significant and much more complex in the next century. In
order to meet new challenges and sustain an inhabitable global environment, we need to dramatically improve
education at all levels in the environmental sciences. Therefore, there is a need for new tools to support
complex learning in this domain. Our approach is based on analysis of previous research on designing ILEs
for complex learning (Arias et al., 1997; Enkenberg, 1995; Eden et al., 1996; Forrester, 1994; Spector, &
Davidsen, 1997a) and differs from these in three major aspects:
• It assumes that the integration of constructionism and systems dynamics is a powerful combination for the
design of a new kind of complex task environment for simulating and thinking about real-life phenomena.
• It focuses on the significance and attainability of authenticity in learning scenarios.
• It supports that the design of ILEs for lifelong learning cannot be investigated in isolation by looking just
at one small part of it, such as K-12 education, University education, or designers.
This work has been developed in conjunction with the Kreate-IT (Creativity, Technology and IT at elementary
schools) project carried out by the Institute for Media Technology. This project aims at creating an ILE that
fosters learning based on ideas of apprenticeship (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and at developing a set of tools to
facilitate the understanding of complex phenomena among young learners. In our view the methods of
cognitive apprenticeship learning are useful in a wider context in examining and learning about complex
phenomena. Since September 1997, we have been working in the Kreate-IT project together with three schools
at the municipality of Vetlanda, Sweden. Target population of the project are students of the ages of 12 to 13.
The ecological and environmental topics and the technological tools are chosen to fit the students' level and
field of interest.
The technological tools that are suggested to the students are: the Lego-Dacta Control-Lab, the Lego-Dacta
Robotics System and the ROBOLAB programming language. The heart of the system is the RCX or
programmable brick (Resnick et al., 1998), an autonomous LEGO microcomputer that can be programmed
using a PC. This device uses sensors to take input from its environment, to process data, and to control signals
and devices involved in different processes. ROBOLAB is the software for controlling the RCX and is based
on LAB VIEW . This powerful, real-life professional software is made accessible for young learners since
ROBOLAB uses a user interface that is appropriate for children.
Since our domain of interest is related to complex phenomena in environmental sciences, we have developed a
computer controlled greenhouse by utilizing the learning tools described above. This technological
environment provides an experimental arena for learning in and about complex systems. In particular, we
believe that children, by playing, building and programming with these learning materials, can gain a deeper
understanding of how dynamic systems behave. Three major principles for the design of educational
environments based on Vygotsky's (Nardi, 1996) and Papert's (1993) work have been applied in our
development:
• Authentic activities: Children should have access to, and participate in, similar cultural activities to those
of adults and should be using age-appropriate tools and artifacts modeled on those used by adults,
• Construction: Children should be constructing artifacts and sharing them with their community,
• Collaboration: Educational environments should involve collaboration between experts and students and
between individual learners and fellow learners.
According to Resnick (1998) these new kind of learning material enable children to explore a new set of
concepts (in particular, "systems concepts" such as feedback and emergence) that have previously been
considered "too advanced" for children to learn. Our primary goal in this project is not to help young learners
accomplish some task faster or more effectively, but rather to engage them in new ways of thinking and
learning about complex domains, in particular those concerning environmental sciences. We are conducting
more in-depth empirical studies, by means of observations and interviews, of how and what children learn
through their interactions with this learning environment. These issues are being evaluated through small-
scale cases. We will compare results and experiences across these cases. The evaluation is qualitative and it
has been carried out through the entire project. Furthermore, we are exploring the use of system dynamics to
develop an educationally meaningful way to exhibit the relationship between the structure and the behavior of
dynamic systems. More broadly, we hope that these studies will help us to develop a richer theoretical
framework for understanding the role of these new kind of learning environments for learning about complex
domains.
References
Arias, E., Eden, H., & Fischer, G. (1997). Enhancing Communication, Facilitating Shared Understanding,
and Creating Better Artifacts by Integrating Physical and Computational Media. Designing Interactive
Systems (DIS 97): Processes, Practices, Methods and Techniques Conference Proceedings. ACM Press.
Eden, H., Eisenberg, M., Fischer, G., & Repenning, A. (1996) Making Learning a Part of Life.
Communications of the ACM. Vol 39.No. 4. (40-49).
Enkenberg, Jorma. (1995). Complex Technology-Based Learning Environment. In R. Tennyson & A. Barron
(Eds.), Automating Instructional Design: Computer-Based Development and Delivery Tools (245-264).
NATO ASI Series.
Forrester, J. (1994). Learning through System dynamics as Preparation for the 21st Century. Keynote Address
for Systems Thinking and Dynamic Modeling Conference for K-12 Education , June 27-29, 1994 at Concord,
MA, USA.
Jonassen, D.H. (1998). Designing constructivist learning environments. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.),
Instructional-design theories and models, 2
nd
Ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation . Cambridge University
Press.
Nardi B. (1996). Context and consciousness: Activity Theory in Human-Computer Interaction . Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Papert, S. (1993). The Children's Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer . New York: Basic
Books.
Resnick, M. (1996). Distributed Constructionism. In Proceedings of the International Conference on the
Learning Sciences, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, Northwesten University,
July 1996.
Resnick, M., Martin, F., Berg, R., Borovoy, R., Colella, V., Kramer, K., Silverman, B. (1998). Digital
Manipulatives: New Toys to Think With. Proceedings of the CHI '98 conference . ACM Press.
Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Research ,
27(2), 4-12.
Spector, M & Davidsen, P. (1997a). Creating Engaging Courseware Using Systems Dynamics. Computers in
Human Behavior, Volume 13, Number 2 (pp. 127-156).
Spector, M & Davidsen, P. (1997b). Constructing effective interactive learning environments using System
Dynamics methods and tools: Interim report. Report NR 1. EIST Publications & Reports.
Wasson, B. (1997). Advanced educational technologies: The learning environment. Computers in Human
Behaviour, 13(4), 571-594.
Experiences with the BSCW Shared Workspace System as the Backbone
of a Virtual Learning Environment for Students.
Wolfgang Appelt and Peter Mambrey
GMD - German National Research Center for Information Technology
Schloß Birlinghoven, D-53754 Sankt Augustin, Germany
appelt@gmd.de mambrey@gmd.de
Abstract: The BSCW system is a Web based groupware tool for asynchronous and synchronous
cooperation. We describe the system and the experiences we made with it serving as the backbone
of a virtual learning environment for students. The field study took place in summer 1998. It
demonstrated the usefulness of the system for students and teachers as well as the need for further
research and socio-technical redesign.
1. Introduction
The World Wide Web (WWW) is an addressing system, network protocol, document mark-up language and client-
server architecture. In some sense it is also a collaboration technology, allowing people to share information in a
manner which is not restricted to a particular system environment. The WWW has a number of advantages as the
technological foundation for tools to support collaborative information sharing and teleteaching applications:
• WWW browsers are available for all important platforms and provide access to information in a platform
independent manner;
• Browsers offer a simple and consistent user interface across different platforms;
• Browsers are already part of the computing environment of students.
GMD has developed the BSCW (Basic Support for Cooperative Work) Shared Workspace system within the last
four years with the goal to transform the Web from a primarily passive information repository to an active
cooperation medium. The BSCW system is an application which extends the browsing and information download
features of the Web with more sophisticated features for document upload, version management, member and group
administration and more, to provide a set of features for more collaborative information sharing accessible using
standard Web browsers.
Since Web technology supports primarily asynchronous cooperation – people communicate and cooperate at
different points in time – it can be used most rapidly for the construction of so-called virtual workspaces :
information repositories for groups where they deposit any kind of information for their co-operation tasks and
which they visit on a regular basis to retrieve the necessary information they need for fulfilling their tasks. In the
meantime, the BSCW system has become quite popular particularly in the academic area and is used at a number of
universities for a variety of applications.
We have used the system to establish a virtual learning environment [1; 2] for M.A. students of the Social Science
Department of the Gerhard-Mercator University in Duisburg, Germany [3]. The system should technically assist the
collaborative learning of the class and furthermore guarantee for all (students and teacher):
• The availability of all working materials and results;
• The transparency of the participants' actions to offer an orientation frame and social context;
• The awareness about the history of documents;
• The immediacy to communicate one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many;
• The ubiquitous access independent from a prescribed place.
The students agreed to be part of the field trial and its evaluation. By this we wanted to gain knowledge about the
collaborative learning of students via synchronous and asynchronous media (see chapter 3).
2. Functionality of the BSCW System
The BSCW Shared Workspace system is an extension of a standard Web server through the server CGI Application
Programming Interface. A BSCW server (Web server with the BSCW extension) manages a number of shared
workspaces, i.e. repositories for shared information, accessible to members of a group using a simple user name and
password scheme. In general, a BSCW server will manage workspaces for different groups, and users may be
members of several workspaces (e.g. one workspace corresponding to each project a user is involved with or, in the
case of teleteaching, each course that a student has selected).
A shared workspace can contain different kinds of information such as documents, pictures, URL links to other Web
pages, threaded discussions, member contact information and more. The contents of each workspace are represented
as information objects arranged in a folder hierarchy.
In addition to the normal download of information from a Web site, users can also upload information from their
local file system into a BSCW workspace. For example, a teacher may upload exercises into a workspace. Students
download them onto their computers and later upload the "homework" they were expected to perform back into a
workspace for review by the teacher. The following are the main features of the system (for more details see [4]):
• Authentication: People have to identify themselves by name and password before they have access to BSCW
workspaces.
• Version management: Documents within a workspace can be put under version control which is particularly
useful for joint document production.
• Discussion forums: Users may start a discussion on any topic they like and the system presents the threads in a
user friendly manner.
• Access rights: The system contains a sophisticated access rights model which allows, for example, that some
users may have complete control over an object in a workspace whereas others have only read access or no
access at all.
• Search facilities: Users can specify queries to find objects within BSCW workspaces based on names, content
or specific properties such as document author or document modification date. Furthermore, queries may be
submitted to Web search engines and the result of the query can be imported into workspaces.
• Document format conversion: These facilities allow users to transform a document into their format of choice,
e.g., a proprietary document format into HTML, before downloading it.
• Interface to synchronous communication: Through this interface users can specify synchronous sessions and
launch respective tools, e.g., audio/video conferencing software or shared whiteboard applications.
• Customization: Through user preferences the users can modify the system interface to some extent, e.g.,
whether or not they want to use an Javascript or ActiveX enhanced interface.
• Multi-language support: The interface of the system can be tailored to a particular language by straight-forward
extensions. Several languages (e.g., French, Spanish, Catalan) have been created by users of the system and are
publicly available.
A cooperative system should provide awareness information to allow users to coordinate their work. The event
service (activity reports) of the BSCW system is an attempt to provide users with information on the activities of
other users, with respect to the objects within a shared workspace.
Events are triggered whenever a user performs an action in a workspace, such as uploading a new document,
downloading ('reading') an existing document, renaming a document and so on. The system records the events, and
presents the recent events to each user. 'Recent' in this context means events which have occurred for an object since
the user last 'caught up' action, an operation by which users can tell the system they are aware of the events that have
occurred so far and no longer wish to see them in the workspace. Events can be caught up at different levels, from
individual objects to complete workspace folder hierarchies.
Each event entry describes what was done, when and by whom. Although this approach for providing group
awareness is very simple, feedback from users of the BSCW system indicates that information such as 'A uploaded a
new version of document X', or 'B has read document Y' is often very useful for group members in coordinating
their work and gaining an overview of what has happened since they last logged in.
Figure 1 is an example of the user interface of the BSCW system. It shows a listing of a folder containing three sub-
folders ("bug reports", "proposals & remarks", "software"), a link object ("Public Server"), A MS Word document
("What's New"), an object containing the results of a WWW query at a search engine ("Altavista Search Results"), a
meeting object ("final make (beta)") and a discussion object ("What do you think about ..."). The icon in front of
each object's name indicates the type of the object. Behind each object is the name of the person who created the
object and the date when it was created or most recently modified.
Figure 1. HTML user interface to a BSCW shared workspace
At the top of the screen there are buttons for triggering operations such as "Add Member" to provide access to this
folder to other persons, or "Add Document", "Add Folder", "Add URL", etc., to create new objects within the folder.
Other actions such as "Catch up", "Copy" or "Archive" can be applied to objects which have been marked through
the tick boxes in front of each objects' name. Further action buttons appear in a line below each object (e.g.,
"Modify", "Replace", "Convert", "Edit Query", or "Reply") since they are only applicable to one particular object.
Behind three objects ("proposals & remarks", "software", "What do you think about ...") there are so-called event
icons which indicate that an event occurred, e.g., the "What do you think about ..." discussion object is new since
user "elke" visited this folder the last time and there have been modifications within the folders "proposals &
remarks" and "software". Clicking on these event icons would give more details about the event, e.g., which user(s)
triggered these events.
3. First empirical findings
During a three months period a class of 15 (5 female) students and their teacher (one of the authors) evaluated the
usefulness of the system as an augmentation to the usual classroom teaching where interaction among students or
students and teacher usually is limited to the face-to-face meetings and learning occurs usually as an individual
cognitive task. It was our aim to add social aspects of interaction and collaboration to create a social collaborative
learning environment to enhance the traditional approach. The data collection was done by the system (log files,
screen shots, archiving of text chats etc.), the students themselves (amount of email, communication partners,
personal impressions, self description of usage patterns), and by the teacher (use of the mailing list, the BSCW
activity reports, activities on a CUSeeMe video server, interviews etc.). The study followed the principles of an
ethnographic analysis [5] of cooperative work in practice under real life conditions [6]. The common goal of the
course was to collaborately analyse and rate the web pages of the factions of the German Bundestag. The
telecommunications expenses of the students were paid by the GMD.
Known teaching media like face-to-face lectures, papers, slides, and telephone were used. New was the BSCW
system including a mailing list, email to persons or groups, and synchronous group meetings (virtual lectures)
including video, audio chat, and text chat on a CUSeeMe video server situated in the GMD. These virtual
synchronous group meetings lasted approximately two hours and were held instead of face-to-face meetings in the
university. The students usually used their PCs at home to take part asynchronously as well as in the synchronous
meetings. The students lived distributed in an area of 60 miles distance round the university. Few knew each other
before.
As very often found in explorative studies, the amount of factors to monitor were so huge and even dynamically
evolving, that it was hard to draw definite conclusions. That is why during Winter 1998 / 99 a second attempt is on
its way to gain more and profound information . In this paper we name some interesting findings which could be
condensed as first heuristic hypotheses.
Establishing social relations in a collaborative virtual learning environment is as important and even takes
longer than establishing the technical prerequisites
To establish a social relationship among those who collaboratively learn is a process which takes time. It is an
evolving process of mutual understanding, the development of conventions, and trust. It is an activity which has to
be initialized and organized by the teacher. It is at least as important as teaching the use of the system. Although the
students differed in hardware and software knowledge, the "technical" basis to interact could be established within
one month of time.
Hardware and software has to be trained and cannot be left to self organization processes
Although the basic system functionalities are easy to learn a training concept is necessary to achieve equal options
for all. Training included hours of practical homework for the students. To guarantee the success of the training it
was followed by intensive coaching which lasted over the whole course. Leaving the responsibility of hardware and
software training to the students (in the beginning of the field trial) created divergencies among them: power users
evolved as well as reluctant users, which in few cases remained observers in the CUSeeMe sessions til the end of the
course.
The role of video in synchronous virtual meetings is important but audio comes first, followed by text chat
In synchronous group meetings those who used actively video were active discussants and attracted more
contributions than those who were lurkers. During this virtual conferences the main problems occurred with the
audio chat. The problems were twofold: on the technical side the bandwith (modem with 33.6 Kbps or ISDN) was to
narrow for a sufficient transmission over a longer period; on the social side the discussions had to be explicitely
moderated by the teacher. Despite this it happened several times that we missed the leading thread and bypartisan
discussions evolved instead of group discussions. As a conclusion we all judged unanymously, that CUSeeMe
actually is not useful for teaching and group discussions but for the exchange of short infos, for the settlement of
organizational questions, or for coordination and control.
Transparency and control is the Janus head of a virtual learning environment: both increased drastically
As shown in the previous chapters transparency, awareness, and immediacy of action were basic goals to achieve by
applying a virtual learning environment. These are necessary requirements to add context to documents, actions,
and individuals inhabiting the virtual environment. On the other hand it led to changes in behavior which reduced
the positive effects. At the beginning students tended to present very cautiously working materials or results of their
work. They were afraid of making mistakes or being compared and rated minor than their colleagues. Different
styles evolved related to the gender. The female students tended to name their contributions e.g. as first, informal
versions while most of their male colleagues presented themselves and their work more actively although there was
no objective reason based in the contributions. This behavior equalized to the end of the course. In synchronous
meetings some women behaved different than in the beginning. One could see them sitting at home drinking tea,
smoking cigarettes and once the group was asked by a female student: "hi all, I am a bit late, did I miss something
important?" This assumes that accomodation to the new situation is a relevant factor in virtual learning
environments. To take the concerns about making "mistakes and bad exposures" serious a learning environment
should offer protected areas or "play grounds" for those who first want to exercise.
The quantative and qualitative amount of interaction among students as well as students and teacher
increased heavily
During the three months the "average" student sent app. 150 - 200 e-mails to his or her colleagues, 60 e-mails were
distributed via the mailing list, the shared common folders of the group were used daily. We had 6 virtual group
sessions on the reflector which lasted each time about two hours. Beside this the reflector was used for smaller
group meetings or to directly address the teacher via video and audio. In the beginning most of the communication
dealt with the use of technology (T) and organizational questions (O) later on unspecific (social) chat (C) and the
discussion of the common task (I) dominated. The extensive use of the media did not lead to singularization or
isolation of the students or the substitution of real life contacts. The contrary was the case: often once a week
students invited the group for a physical meeting in a pub near the campus.
The new additional requirements like training, coaching, preparing and moderating electronically need much
more time and work than the conventional teaching
The activities to initialize and vitalize the collaborative learning environment by the teacher and by the students
themselves caused great efforts, at least threefold than usual. Everything - except the system - had to be established
from the scratch. It was clearly shown, that a collaborative learning environment lives because of the
communications and actions of the participants. The technical systems is an important but not sufficient basis. It can
foster or hinder interaction. In our case the BSCW system was a great advantage for all.
New metaphors show the emergence of a new commonly shared virtual space for learning
Is the description 'virtual collaborative learning environment' pure rhetoric or reality? In the final interviews with the
students at the end of the course we asked if the extensive exchange of information among the group led to the
shared idea of a common virtual space. This was agreed by all. As approvements several arguments were given: the
emergence of new roles (e.g. the supporter), the emergence of new behavior patterns (e.g. check mail in the morning
and in the evening), the emergence of new socio-technical conventions (e.g. own video must have the same size as
the others), the emergence of new metaphors understood by all especially during the video sessions (e.g. "Klaus is
frozen" = only picture, no video; "let us meet on the daidalos" = name of the reflector etc.) and the fact, that
although the course ended in July the shared workspaces of the BSCW and the mailing list is still in use (Oct. 98).
4. Conclusions
From the psychological point of view learning is an individual action. From the pedagogical point of view learning
can be assisted by context and collaboration. Our field study showed that the BSCW system was a useful and
promising tool to establish a network of communication and collaboration among students and teacher. The findings
will be used to evolutionary redesign the system which thereby can be augmented by the perspectives and demands
of the users as participating actors of the design and use of virtual collaborative learning environments. From the
students point of view the availability of working materials and results as well as the immediacy to communicate to
others was considered as a great advantage and raised the level of motivation and effort. For the teacher the
immediacy of communication and the options to overview the actions and results of each student was the most
important effect.
References
[1] Verdejo, Felisa, Davies, Gordon, eds., The Virtual Campus. Trends for higher education and training: Chapman
& Hall, London et al. 1998.
[2] Liao, Thomas T., ed., Advanced Educational Technology: Research Issues and Future Potential. Springer:
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1996.
[3] http://orgwis.gmd.de/~mambrey/ss98
[4] Bentley, R., Appelt, W., Busbach. U., Hinrichs, E., Kerr, D., Sikkel, S., Trevor, J. and Woetzel, G. (1997)
"Basic Support for Cooperative Work on the World Wide Web" in International Journal of Human-Computer
Studies 46 (6): 827-846; Special issue on Innovative Applications of the World Wide Web (Available on-line as
PostScript (http://bscw.gmd.de/Papers/IJHCS/IJHCS.ps) and HTML document
(http://bscw.gmd.de/Papers/IJHCS/IJHCS.html.)
[5] Hughes, John A., Randall, Davis, Shapiro, Dan, Faltering from Ethnography to Design. In: Proceedings of
ACM CSCW '92 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 115-122. ACM, 1992.
[6] Bowers, John, The Work to make a Network Work: Studying CSCW in Action. In: Proceedings of the ACM
CSCW '94 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 287-298. ACM, 1994.
Multimedia for Kids
Antonio R. Bartolomé
University of Barcelona, Spain
bartolom@doe.d5.ub.es
Karl Steffens
University of Koeln , Germany
karl.steffens@rs1.rrz.uni-koeln.de
"Multimedia for Kids" ("Mediakids") is a project of research and development in the field of multimedia design
and production, funded by "Eductional Multimedia Joint Call" from the European Commission, with the
participation of 5 universities, 4 schools and 2 private companies of 6 European countries. The project began in
September 1998, and will last for is 2 years. This is a short description of this project and its main distinctive
items.
1. Objectives and basic description
Research on educational multimedia shows that there are a number of key aspects that in general receive little
attention. To these, we want to pay particular interest:
. The fit of multimedia programs to the curriculum.
. Individual differences between teachers.
. Cultural differences.
. The level of participation of end-users in the development process.
. The consideration of metacognitive and non-cognitive dimensions in learning.
. The integration of CD-ROM multimedia material and Internet based material into instructional processes.
The project will evaluate the design, development and integration of multimedia materials into instruction
processes through two parallel conceptions. The objective of the research is not to compare both ones but to
analyze how end users participation in design and production process affects the final integration of products,
and how two different multimedia designs could be integrated in actual educational environments.
"Geometry for Kids" is a CD-ROM multimedia program, with Internet based communication elements, in an
open -modular, flexible, interchangeable- design, to be developed by software companies but with participation
of end-users -students and teachers- during the production process, and in a context of a methodological
approach that takes into consideration the national and individual differences between countries, schools and
teachers, as well as the metacognitive and non-cognitive aspects of learning.
"As we were" is a Internet multimedia environment -the history of childhood in Europe- with some CD-ROM
based resources. This environment affords a high level of communication of schools involved either at national
or European level. The environment is composed of elements and tools as well as methodological suggestions
that teacher and students could integrate freely into their own curricular design. The CD-ROM offers multimedia
elements -e.g. tools, samples as designs, video sequences, and sounds- compiled by schools that participate in
the project.
Our evaluative research will aim at clarifying if these proposals answer schools needs and, at the same time, how
they will offer possibilities of being developed in an cost-efficiency way in an open market.
This is a complex and important project, funded with half a million of dollars. There are other lines of research
as well. One linked to pedagogical research is to develop solutions that try to apply to commercial products the
results of recent research about learning and related metacognitive aspects.
2. Other Characteristics of the Project:
Direct participation of 4 schools as associated partners, and 2 more schools in development and evaluation
phases. Participation of 30 schools in the implementation phase through National Agencies and Schools
Associations and networks as well as Teachers Training Institutions.
The two multimedia computer programs (CD-ROM and Internet based technology) will be part of a learning
environment that takes into consideration constructivist, situated cognition and contingent instruction aspects.
Schools will benefits from the results of this project in terms of innovative MM models based in edutainment
conceptions, 3D representations, context learning, object oriented design, as well as in terms of models for a
transnational teaching and a cooperation with university and industry.
The programs will be validated at schools, private and public, with telematics connection, MM level 2
equipment, one KEY person -a teacher interested, motivated, and English speaking, and 8-10 and 10-12 year
old students. Schools will be connected though national agencies and/or private schools associations.
The project will benefit from cognitive/metacognitive/non-cognitive research, instructional studies, particularly
in the field of Geometry and History. The first 3 months of project (work packages 2 and 5) are oriented to
prepare the pedagogical basis for the multimedia design.
The partners involved in the project are: Universitat de Barcelona (coordinator) (E), Universtät zu Köln (D), The
Nottingham Trent University (UK), Universidade Catolica Portuguesa (PT), Leiden University (NL), Colegio
Senara (E), Col.legi públic Salvador Espriu (E), College House Junior School (UK), Scuola Statale Fabio Besta
(I), Giunti Multimedia (I), Plaza & Janés Editores (Bertelsman group) (E).
3. Project Management
The work has been organized in 9 workpackages (WP), each one with several tasks.
WP 1 Project management.
WP 2 Research on children´s cognitive, metacognitive, and non-cognitive activities in working
at geometry problems with computers
WP 3 Development of a pedagogical framework for a multimedia geometry environment for primary schools
WP 4 Development of a multimedia course on geometry for primary schools
WP 5 Research on children´s technology enhanced historical reasoning in primary schools
WP 6 Development of a pedagogical framework for an open software (shell) for a multimedia course
on the history of childhood in Europe
WP 7 Development of an open software (shell) for creating a multimedia course
on the history of childhood in Europe for primary schools
WP 8 Formative evaluation of the two MM programs
WP 9 Dissemination of the two programs and evaluation of their use in specific learning environments..
WP2 and WP5 have been completed. Reports have been produced in paper, Web and CD-ROM. The CD-ROM
version includes also a database of references (Mac and Win platforms). All are available at:
http://www.doe.d5.ub.es/mediakids
Grimm Project. ICT at School
Antonio R. Bartolomé
University of Barcelona, Spain
bartolom@doe.d5.ub.es
Mariona Grané
University of Barcelona, Spain
Mariona.Grane@doe.d5.ub.es
Anna Rubio
University of Barcelona, Spain
Anna.Rubio@doe.d5.ub.es
1. The History
GRIMM is a research + development (R+D) project between schools, universities and companies, whose aim is
to introduce Information and Communication Technologies into education. As an umbrella project, it includes
several and different subprojects.
Spring, 1993. One teacher at the Marinada public school, and one professor form the University of Barcelona
thought: What about to introduce standard computers in 3 years old classrooms as other space in the learning
environment? In Spain, 3-6 years old is the first level school system. During a month they found that touch
screen was not necessary -except for filling the computer screen with chocolate, that computers were as natural
for children as books -or more, that they could work developing strategies and organizing them selves, that they
did not need sophisticated computers but standard Macintosh... During the next year Apple, two other
universities and 12 more schools across Spain involved in the project. From them, several universities,
companies and schools have been added to the project becoming the most important non-official project for the
introduction of ICT at the school at 1999.
2. Some descriptors
Grimm does not limit participation. It is flexible and members could participate at their own way, with different
targets, technical evolution, social organization, educational needs,... Public and private, religious and non-
religious schools are members of the project. However, respecting democratic principles and children rights is
one of the rules of the project.
GRIMM started with the idea of exploring computers being introduced in a given framework: childhood
classrooms, organized as interest centers, being the computer one of this interest centers. Now the projects
includes Primary and Secondary levels until 16 years old. A key aspect is the collaboration of companies,
schools and universities in a common project. Also local and regional authorities participate or have expressed
their interest in participating.
Computers are considered as communication tools. The coordinators (mainly universities and some schools) act
stimulating educational strategies where the use of computers is introduced in a natural way. Schools have an
important role in the direction of project for developing teaching methodology and multimedia software.
Universities direct the research lines and works. Companies support the framework, communication channels
and hardware and software needs. Companies and universities are responsible for facilitating the introduction of
new models, innovations and actions in this learning process.
A key idea is the incorporation of R+D concept in education field: concrete research projects are being carried
out - global research is about how to introduce new technologies into childhood classrooms. Software and new
education resources are being produced either by teachers or by developers with the support and evaluation of
teachers. Teachers training is considered as a development task.
3. Structure of the project
Schools and universities works in a autonomous way, through local and regional groups. A nation wide Task
Force group activates the project and represents the interests of the whole group. Nowadays, the leaders of the
project are some institutions, centers and enterprises: Irabia School, University of Tarragona, University of
Malaga, University of Barcelona and Apple Computer Spain. These leaders, the national coordinators team
(Grimm Task Force), promote the participation in the project and pretend to coordinate and facilitate the
communication between the participants.
The communication is based in a distributed concept. Irabia School, Apple and University of Barcelona support
the main Web sites with specific goals (resources exchange, data information, project management,...) One of
these sites is restricted to project partners. Other universities support teachers and coordinators lists (University
of Tarragona), paper printed materials distribution (University of Malaga), etc. Some specific projects are
supported e.g. the Finderina childhood distribution list project is supported from Barcelona, while the Teachers
instructional web pages project is supported by Irabia, etc.
Apple and other companies support the Internet access, the CD-ROM six-month distribution with the materials
developed in the project, the organization of task force meetings and the annual National Conference. The
teachers training projects include the local and regional actions, the Grimm real and virtual campus, the
technical introduction courses from companies, and other training actions.
4. Results
Grimm has played a first role in the introduction of computers at childhood school in Spain and it has supported
several research works in ICT school introduction field. It has destroyed some myths about the isolation
produced by computers, the collaborative work, the emotional development of young computers users, etc. The
computers use training of teachers have showed as an emotional process more than a skills developing one.
Schools have discovered that it is possible to collaborate with commercial companies, and these have found that
is is necessary to consider the teachers ideas.
More information -always in Spanish- from web sites, or asking for CD-ROM or books at.
http://www.doe.d5.ub.es/grimm2000
http://www.apple.es/educacion/proyectogrimm/Welcome.html
CourseMaster: Modeling A Pedagogy for On-line Distance Instruction
Benjamin Bell
Department of Human Development
Teachers College, Columbia University
United States of America
benjamin.bell@columbia.edu
Danielle Kaplan
Department of Human Development
Teachers College, Columbia University
United States of America
danielle.kaplan@columbia.edu
Abstract: As attention becomes increasingly focused on distance education, in the public eye and
within the academic community, a sense of urgency to develop on-line course offerings is taking
hold among institutions that wish to be responsive to student needs (real or perceived) and that do
not want to be "left behind" as peer institutions tool up for distance instruction. With the host of
software tools available, adapting courses to the on-line learning environment does not pose
insurmountable technical obstacles, and can be almost routine. What becomes a challenge is
preserving the original value of the instructional design and adapting the pedagogical nuances of a
course to best leverage the modalities of on-line instruction. This paper illustrates how a graduate
level course at Teachers College, tailored for face-to-face instruction, was adapted for distant
learners, and how the instructional design was captured and replicated by a web-based distance
education authoring tool.
Introduction
Recently, Teachers College, Columbia University expanded the boundaries of its campus by offering on-line distance
learning courses for the first time. Three graduate courses, in three different areas, were selected for this pilot initiative:
Computer-Mediated Communication, The Teaching of Writing, and Instructional Design of Educational Technology. The
courses, previously designed for the classroom, were adapted to on-line settings, and in the spirit of experimentation, each course
adopted a different development path. We will discuss the design of the course in Instructional Design of Educational
Technology, which poses several challenges to the distance format, among them, its emphasis on discussion, the importance of
technology demonstrations, and the centrality of group project work. We also summarize the evolution of the CourseMaster
Authoring Environment, a database-driven tool that is derived centrally from a model of distance instruction that guided the
construction of the original course application.
Goals
The goals of this project were to build a reproducible distance learning model, within which rich classroom interactions
among participants can be replicated, and to shed light on potential obstacles to the success of this approach. We were guided in
part by our previous distance learning research that calls for a resource space, discussion space and collaboration space as
components of successful computer-supported distributed learning (Bell & Meyer,1997). In the pilot course, we focussed on
specific design techniques for fostering group interaction. We developed several facets of the course with community-building in
mind: a student database where participants would share personal profiles; a suite of technology demonstrations and
corresponding assignments aimed at getting students to share reactions to those demonstrations; a terminal project that engaged
teams of students in remote collaboration; and regular discussion and chat sessions to foster and sustain whatever communal
momentum had been achieved. The creation and implementation of Instructional Design Online (as the distance version came to
be called) presented an opportunity to invent a web-based learning environment, adapt an onsite class to an on-line course and
capture its design in a mold, thus providing a test-bed for studying learning at a distance.
Pilot Course Design: Instructional Design Online
Instructional Design of Educational Technology is a graduate class that surveys contemporary frameworks for
intelligent learning environments and that engages students in designing and executing collaborative projects (e.g., an interactive
web-based environment, stand-alone instructional multimedia, etc.). The class thus emphasizes learning by doing. In order to
support this approach through computer-mediated instruction, the course site includes five sections, each of which can be reached
by using a drop-down menu: Information Desk , Course Central , Instructor's Corner , Student Lounge , and Help Center . Each
section has its own sub-menu for the sites located within that section.
The Information Desk includes an overview of the course, an orientation session, a course outline, and registration
information. The overview offers a summary of the class and a list of required readings. The orientation is intended to welcome
students, guide them into practicing tasks common to an on-line class and prepare them with the tools necessary for exploring the
learning environment. Initial assignments are designed to engage students in Internet communication. Orientation assignments
include viewing a video welcome from the instructors (Fig. 1) and creating a student profile.
Figure 1: Streamed Video Greeting
Course Central consists of a syllabus, on-line demonstrations of educational technology, course lecture slides, and
course assignments. The syllabus is divided into topic-specific modules, each including links to the corresponding lecture slides,
assignments for the week and related technology demonstrations. The readings for that module are available via hypertext links
to external web sites.
Web-based educational technology demonstrations represent an important element of this course. The principles and
frameworks discussed in the readings can remain largely static or abstract in the absence of applications of those ideas in the
form of interactive illustrations. To preserve this central aspect of the course, we adapted several works-in-progress at Teachers
College for on-line viewing, including Wx-Brief (Bell, Vaughn & Reibel 1997), Aviation Story Archive (Bell, Gold & Kaplan,
1998), and the Virtual Hall of Fame (Zirkel, Bell & Gold, 1998). Each Demonstration is accessible on-line (Fig. 2) and
supplemented by an assignment in which students share observations and critiques of the demonstration.
Figure 2: Educational Technology Demonstration
Lecture Slides are available in modules, each consisting of slides that can be navigated in succession or through direct
links. Assignments are designed to encourage students to explore technology tools and Instructional Design theories, and to
integrate them in discussion responses and project creations. Assignments range from regular responses to issues raised in the
reading to creating interactive exemplars of concepts treated during the course.
The Student Lounge includes a database of student profiles, a meeting room and a student projects area. The Student
Profiles section facilitates the distribution and sharing of individual profile and contact information. A participant database (Fig.
3) receives profile forms submitted by the student, and permits the browsing and searching of participant profiles, pictures and
contact data. Profiles include direct links to student mailboxes and world wide web addresses, personal interests, and academic
and professional histories. The instructors' profiles and office hours are in the Instructors' Corner. The profiles include
Instructor academic background, links to personal web sites, and office hours (which are conducted face-to-face, by telephone,
via text chat, or using audio conferencing).
Figure 3: Student Profile Database
The Meeting Room, supporting synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (bulletin board) interaction, is the primary
communication area. The chat room permits live scheduled group discussions, including multiple simultaneous one-to-one
private chats, about topics related to course content, assignments and group projects. Class-wide chats are transcribed and
published on the course site. The discussion room supports group communication through individual message postings.
Early in the course, students are asked to form groups and to begin proposing final projects. As the semester
progresses, students are asked to prepare incremental reports, such as a storyboard, documenting their progress in the final
project. The Student Projects area centralizes information regarding final projects, the culminating product of the students'
experience in the course. Suggestions (in the form of online technology demonstrations) are offered as potential group projects,
though students are invited to propose their own ideas as well. A project database collects and publishes information about
project group members, member email addresses, and project URLs, so that group members and projects are easily accessible.
Formative Evaluation
Participants
The course was offered during the spring, summer and fall semesters of 1998 and is currently in session for the spring,
1999 term. Eight students enrolled for the spring semester, 7 students for the summer, and 17 for the fall. In each semester's class,
more than half of the students registered for credit. All of the students in each semester had completed or were pursuing either a
Masters or Doctoral degree. Most of the students registered for credit were part-time students who work full-time as either
classroom teachers or technology professionals. Several of the non-credit students were faculty at other institutions who were
interested in exploring examples of distance learning courses. Students were physically situated in locations throughout the U.S.
(with some international participation from Japan and Brazil).
Methods
Pre- and post-course surveys and scheduled chat interviews were used to gather qualitative information about on-line
students and on-line student experiences in the pilot course. Chat sessions, discussion postings and group projects served as
additional evidence documenting student performance. The objective of this formative evaluation was to learn more about how
students made use of the tools we supplied with the course, the extent to which those tools furthered the students' capacity to
engage in the class activities, and to explore potential research questions for further studies. The study did not attempt to
measure learning outcomes beyond a qualitative assessment of their productivity as required for grading purposes. Our
evaluation was guided in part by the expectation that understanding the learning needs of students is crucial to successful on-line
course experiences (Reid, 1996; Warren, 1996; Willis, 1995). Pre-course surveys were aimed at gauging student backgrounds
and skills and their reasons for enrolling in the course. Post-course surveys were aimed at gathering student perceptions about
their experience in the course and the design of the learning environment.
Results
Computing ability and exposure to the Internet varied widely among incoming students. In each class there were
individuals who reported that they did not feel confident in their computing skills, as well as others who reported that they were
comfortable with a variety of computer and Internet applications. Variation in computer literacy also became evident as the
semesters progressed. Many of the individuals who had expressed a lack in computing skills moved through the syllabus at a
much slower rate and seemed to be less involved in group communication. There were also individuals who came in with weak
computing skills and gained proficiency at a rapid rate. During one semester, a vision-impaired student participating in the
course provided valuable feedback on the extent to which our course site accommodates visually-impaired students in accessing
information and navigating the site.
The Discussion room was the most active component of the courses in each semester, primarily used for discussion
about course assignments and scheduling. Assignment postings took on a quality that seemed to be a cross between written
language and spoken conversation, with ideas expressed in a blending of informal and formal language styles. A large proportion
of the postings in the discussion threads were responses to assignments or questions from the Instructor or Teaching Assistant.
Students did not begin to initiate spontaneous postings until later in the semester. The discussion room was not used for dialog
with other students until the Instructor suggested that students respond to the postings of other students. Once this suggestion
was made, peer-to-peer interaction became more frequent and substantive.
Statements from students indicate that communication among students also took place via private email messages and
by telephone. While much of the communication from the Instructor and Teaching Assistant occurred in the public
communication space, spontaneous communication from students to instructors usually took place in private email or telephone
messages. Email messages and telephone calls from students to the Instructor or TA were primarily about administrative and
technical issues, such as course credit, and only occasionally contained content related communication. Instances of project
related mail and phone calls did occur just before the final projects were due during the spring and summer semesters.
Students in the spring and summer semesters did not frequently meet in the Chat Room unless the Instructor had
scheduled the chat. Students in the fall course appeared to be making more use of the Chat Room for peer-to-peer
communication. One fall semester group met in the Chat Room for several hours a week. The main differences between groups
in the fall course and groups in the spring and summer appeared to be group size (the fall class had larger groups) and individual
computing ability (the fall class had more individuals with strong computing ability). In each term, the Chat Room was used on
just one occasion as an entire class (time-zone differences caused scheduling difficulties). Not all of the students attended the
scheduled chats. For the participants who did attend, these sessions were productive. Several students mentioned that Chat
Room discussions were most like the communication that takes place in the classroom. All of the Chat participants
spontaneously shared thoughts and ideas.
Not all of the individuals in the spring and summer courses completed a final group project. The group projects that
were completed were of high quality. There had been some concern about whether students in the on-line class would have
access to the same materials as students in the classroom, such as commercial, licensed authoring software, so it was decided that
on-line student projects would be created with publicly available materials. Despite the potential difference in student resources,
the on-line students' final project was comparable to final projects created by students in the classroom. Students in both online
and in classroom courses produced original technology-based learning environments that showed some integration of theories
discussed in the course.
Student comments suggested that they appreciated the variety of delivery methods and information resources provided,
such as lecture notes, public readings and discussion threads. However, they also expressed frustration in accessing these
resources. Several students mentioned that they had consistently had connectivity problems and problems during chat sessions
and in downloading plug-ins and other course information. Advanced components took too long to download or made their
computer crash. These students indicated that much of the problem was with their hardware. Suggestions were made to make
graphics, video and other hard to access information available through other means. Generally, the comments acknowledged the
importance of speedy and reliable connections and up-to-date hardware. Also, based on the comments made during the final chat
session in which students were directly queried (in the absence of the instructor), students appeared overwhelmed by the
technical requirements combined with the content of the course. These students did not feel that their knowledge of computer
technology supported their learning needs and suggested a hands-on prerequisite, which would enable students to learn the
technology apart from the content. All students who have completed the course thus far responded that they would consider
taking another distance learning course.
Discussion
Our exploratory findings provide some information about the needs of distance learners, how our design functions in
practice, and how to focus our future research efforts. While many distance courses are promoted to provide flexibility and
convenience, they may in fact be more time consuming than classroom courses, depending upon the skill level and resources of
individual participants and the quantity of participants. For students who were not comfortable with Internet communication or
had inadequate resources, downloading data and keeping up with communication was more time consuming than they had
expected. It is clear when examining both student needs and instructional design that explicit information regarding minimum
and suggested hardware and software requirements be made available to students.
There appear to be both similarities and differences in student participation in classroom and distance learning
environments. Similarly to on-site classes, students who were not taking the course for credit were not as active as students who
were enrolled for credit. In contrast to on-site classes, students in the on-line class did not seem as accountable for their work.
On-line students did not complete all of the assignments and did not attend all the scheduled meetings. Overall, the on-line
students in this class required more guidance and imperatives. On-line students did not seem as self-disciplined, perhaps because
they did not have physical access to the Instructor or Teaching Assistant. Despite the challenges involved in this on-line setting,
students were able to utilize the tools, navigate and participate within the learning environment. Most students more than
sufficiently completed the entire course on-line.
These preliminary studies have been helpful in our efforts to develop more systematic means of investigation. Based
on student comments and student participation in the spring and summer courses, a new set of database-driven pre-course and
post-course surveys was developed and distributed in the fall semester online and classroom courses. Survey questions are
designed to capture information regarding student skill level, reasons for taking the course, predictions about the learning
outcomes and challenges in on-line courses versus the learning outcomes and challenges of students in classroom courses, and
perceptions of student-professor and student-student relationships. Questions in the new surveys invite both open-ended (as in
previous surveys) answers and precalculated answers (based on open-ended answers from previous semesters). The overall goal
of this new addition to the design of the course is to provide an improved structure for examining on-line student learning,
evaluating course design, discovering student perceptions about on-line learning in comparison to classroom learning and
gathering preliminary evidence about whether or not intimacy levels among individuals within a distance learning environment
are different than intimacy levels among students in a classroom environment.
Bringing the Model to Life
Upon building what proved to be an effective course design given current technological conditions, we then
successfully crafted CourseMaster (Fig. 4) by abstracting the original course and implementing that abstracted model as a set of
relationally-linked database templates. The result is a sophisticated courseware authoring tool that not only renders the course
production process less mechanically burdensome, but also adheres to (and derives its power from) this specific design model.
Because it is created in a fully web-compliant database environment, CourseMaster can be used remotely by authors, and design
commitments are immediately reflected in the materials published on the web. We can now create a new on-line course modeled
on this design, within any subject area, with relative ease.
Figure 4: CourseMaster Interface
CourseMaster presents us with three research opportunities. First, comparisons can be made using the same design
among different content areas. Second, aspects of group interaction across all content areas and design frameworks can be
explored with the use of survey evaluation databases. Third, questions can be asked about instructional design in terms of
particular on-line learning components, such as chats, discussion rooms and visual aids, by building identical courses that vary
only in terms of the use of particular components.
Conclusion
One common deficiency among distance instruction materials we have encountered is the absence of an explicit
instructional approach (Bell & Meyer, 1997). This paper described a distance courseware design in which we adopted a
pedagogy that emphasizes peer interaction and group collaboration. An overall objective of this research is to develop
frameworks for distance course design, appropriate for given subject domains, that preserve the positive elements of face-to-face
instructional designs while introducing new strategies that take advantage of the properties of desktop telecommunication and
web-based interchange. Our experiences with the design of Instructional Design Online have suggested some positive aspects of
on-line distance learning and have indicated some directions for future research and course development. A principal conclusion
is that successful distance learning must be at least as (if not more) firmly grounded in communication as traditional classroom
instruction. Our success with the use of student profiles, collaborative project work, and extensive discussion lend supports to the
claim that distance learning is effective to the degree that it creates and maintains learning communities that support knowledge
construction. The emergence of collaborative tools that allow students to create and refine knowledge artifacts on-line is
encouraging (Harasim, Calvert & Groeneboer, 1996). Web-based communications technologies will no doubt continue to evolve
to support more real time communication and a more seamless interface among communication, collaboration, and information-
gathering resources (Harasim, 1990). Flexible tools, such as CourseMaster, that help course designers to organize their
information and incorporate emerging communication and collaborative learning tools support an extension beyond the current
model of an HTML template for didactic presentation, toward virtual communities of learning.
References
Bell, B.L., Gold, S., and D. Kaplan (1998). Hangar Flying as story-based instruction: Capturing expertise via on-line video
libraries, Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction in Aeronautics , Montreal, Canada.
Bell, B.L., and R.R. Meyer (1997). Distributed Learning by Distributed Doing, Proceedings of the World Conference on
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Calgary, Canada.
Bell, B.L., Vaughn, H., and J.H. Reibel (1997). Wx-Brief: Aviation Forecasting as Earth Science Inquiry, Proceedings of the
World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Calgary, Canada.
Harasim, L. (1990). Online education: An environment for collaboration and intellectual amplification. In L. Harasim (Ed.)
Online Education: Perspectives on a new environment, New York: Praeger Publishers.
Harasim, L, Calvert, T., and Groeneboer, C. (1996). Virtual-U: A Web-based environment customized to support collaborative
learning and knowledge building in post secondary courses, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Learning
Sciences, Evanston, IL.
Reid, K.A. (1996). Student Attitudes Toward Distance Learning. Research Abstract, Center for Excellence in Distance
Learning, Lucent Technologies.
Warren, R. (1996). Needs of Distance Learners. Research Abstract, Center for Excellence in Distance Learning, Lucent
Technologies.
Willis, B. (1995). Distance Education at a Glance. Engineering Outreach, College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Zirkel, J., Bell, B.L., and Gold, S. (1998). The Virtual Baseball Hall of Fame: Object-Oriented Learning in a Virtual
Environment, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Learning Sciences , Atlanta, GA.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Rob Steiner and Kevin Wolff at the Center for Educational Outreach and Innovation at
Teachers College, Columbia University for support of this research. The authors acknowledge the valuable assistance of Eduard
Izraylovsky, Hun-heon Cho, Jon Michals, Theron Feist and Tawana Murphy, all of Teachers College, and Rob Shea, of
Instructional Systems Inc.
ASU-Online, 3 Years of Digital Design in the Desert: Implementing and
facilitating Web Based Instruction at Arizona State University, an
Experiential Account
William M. Bercu, M.Ed.
College of Extended Education
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
bercu@asu.edu, ASUonline: http://asuonline.asu.edu
ASUOnline is a central course development and management system providing online courses for fourteen
academic colleges on three urban campuses. Since our first Internet course, spring 1996, ASUOnline has
helped faculty produce and deliver 95 university courses. There are sixty courses planned for Summer and
Fall 1999 at Arizona State University.
This presentation will provide an experiential account of successes and challenges that have occurred over
the three years that Distance Learning Technology (DLT): College of Extended Education has offered web-
based instruction.
Included will be issues concerning the design, delivery and service of Internet courses from both the
faculty/student perspective and the administrative challenges to meet their needs.
Global Educational Multimedia Server – GEM
Clive Best, Philip Shiels, Monica de Paola
JRC, Ispra, European Commission
http://gem.jrc.it
Abstract: GEM is the acronym for Global Educational Multimedia Server. It is a project initiated by the
Multimedia Education Taskforce of the European Commission. The concept of GEM is to develop a European
scale clearing house of information, products and services in the domain of emerging multimedia technology
applied to education and training. The vision of a new educational model based on high speed networks,
multimedia content and distance learning is already being pursued by many teaching institutions and
companies. The difficulty facing suppliers and users of such systems is to find existing services, planned
services and general information. This need is likely to increase greatly in the future as the market begins to
expand. One of the needs will be to help teachers and potential students to discover each other and to put
providers and customers in touch.
GEM is conceived as a dynamic database accessible through the Web, whose information and data content are
submitted and updated by the suppliers, teachers and to some extent students. It aims to be a focal point in
Europe for locating information and services in this growing domain.
GEM allows any Internet user to search for courses, educational products and educational events either through
simple free text or classified by thematic keywords and media types. However GEM is more than an ordinary
Web site. Users and organisations, students and teachers, providers and customers can register on the system.
After registering, users can "advertise" products if they are providers or requests for services if they are users.
Similarly Jobs, conferences notices and courses can be announced.
Each item of information entered by a user can be modified on-line by that user. There will soon be discussion
groups and Fora provided with the system. It is possible to upload multimedia content (images, audio and
video) from the users PC to the database.
GEM will also be able to host full interactive courses in a general framework. A database design and Web
interface will be implemented that can allow for a general course framework. This framework allows students to
register for courses and teachers to monitor progress. At this stage the system is envisaged as a solution for
small organisations without the facilities to run their own distance learning courses, but will be able to use GEM
to host them. Future developments envisage a federation of servers coupled through GEM.
System Outline
GEM today is a dynamic database interfaced to the Internet. Users can interface to GEM using a standard Web
browser. Users search the database, submit information and update their entries in the database. Results of user
interaction are Web pages generated on the fly, shown schematically here as a presentation layer. The system has an
object design layer , where all components of the system are defined in object classes. The database will be a
freeware RDBMS and this interfaces through an SQL API layer. The system can be customised by user access eg.
Language preferences. This is shown schematically here as User racking. The interface of the system to the http
server is through the Common Gateway Interface or CGI.
The figure shows a simple schematic overview of GEM and how it will be interfaced to the network.
CGI Layer
SQL Layer
Presentation Layer User Tracking
Internet
HTTP server
Object Layer
GEM uses an object based database which can be dynamically updated over the Internet. The core database is an
SQL relational database with an overlying object based design. GEM only uses public domain software as a basic
requirement is that another party can host a GEM Server without incurring licensing costs. The GEM data model is
based on metadata. A review of existing systems like IMS (1) , the ARIADNE(2) project and IEEE standards
efforts(3) has recently been made. As a result the GEM data model has now been aligned with these systems. A two
way transfer of metadata between either system is now possible.
The following functionality is currently available.
• Free and public access to Internet users to search and locate services and data. This access is called anonymous
access and will require no log in.
• Full support for four languages is offered – English, French, Italian and German. All four user interfaces are
available including keyword searching. Users can save a language preference.
• Possibility for any user or organisation to register on GEM. Once registered each user can enter or upload new
information. Each user has a password which can be changed on-line.
• Each user has a personal Web "visiting card" whose information can be updated by the user online. Each
organisation has a Web presentation space to present the organisation and to provide contact and commercial
information.
• Organisations will be categorised into commercial, governmental, college, schools etc. Each organisation can
advertise products and services in GEM. The adverts can be in any of the four languages supported by GEM.
• Users and organisations can announce meetings, conferences etc. Those events which fall on specific dates will
appear automatically in a Calendar. The Calendar can be browsed by all users.
• Users and organisations will be able to upload "binary data". This can be an audio clip an image, an MPEG
animation etc. Therefore in addition to the metadata the database can hold the media itself.
Searching
• Users are able to search for products by free text entry. This can be fielded search on a given attribute or a
general free text search over all fields. It will be investigated if an automatic translation of the search query so
as to search across multiple languages is feasible.
• Users are able to search for products using controlled structured keywords. The relevant attributes and
keywords are defined in later in the paper. Numbers of entries are generated automatically.
Browsing
• Users can browse around the database using a Yahoo style interface. The software automatically classifies
entries according to valid types and keywords. A refinement of choices can be made by selecting a particular
attribute value.
• Users can browse for events in the calendar
Future Developments
GEM is currently available in pilot operations at http://gem.jrc.it . New functionality is planned and will be added
over the next year. The hosting of course material through a structured course database is under design. Each course
can be updated by the author/maintainer, and a database of registered students will be available to the maintainer.
Discussion groups, bulletin boards and virtual meetings are in preparation. Linkage to other systems through search
interfaces based on Z39.50 are planned, as well as through standard http interfaces. The user interface will be
reviewed and updated in the light of user feedback, and new requirements of the European Commission.
References
Educause IMS Project http://www.imsproject.org
IEEE Learning Standards Comittee http://x3.ieee.org/p1484/
Ariadne Project http://ariadne.unil.ch
Generic Information Server Toolkit- GIST http://gist.jrc.it
Assured Access/Mobile Computing Initiatives
on Five University Campuses
Craig Blurton, Chair
Advisor on Information Technology in Education
Head - IT Unit, CAUT
University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong SAR
craigb@hkucc.hku.hk
Yam San Chee
Dept. of Information Systems & Computer Science
National University of Singapore
Republic of Singapore
Cheeys@comp.nus.edu.sg
Phillip D. Long
Director, Teaching, Learning, Technology Center, and,
Director University Computing User Support Services
Seton Hall University
United States of America
longpd@shu.edu
Mark Resmer
Associate Vice President - Information Technology
Sonoma State University
United States of America
resmer@sonoma.edu
Craig Runde
Director - International Center for Computer Enhanced Learning
Wake Forest University
United States of America
runde@wfu.edu
Overview of Panel Topic
"Mobile computing" and "assured access" are becoming popular phrases to describe a growing number of
university programmes which take advantage of ubiquitous network access points and the portability of
notebook computers to ensure all students have access to digital tools and resources. However, the
implementation of such programmes vary widely from campus to campus. This session will bring together
representatives from five campuses, the University of Hong Kong, the National University of Singapore,
and three U.S. institutions - Seton Hall University, Sonoma State University, and Wake Forest University -
to describe and discuss how each is providing notebook computers and assured access to network resources
to all students.
Mobile Computing and Students at the University of Hong Kong-A Good Match
Craig Blurton, University of Hong Kong
Responding to developments in learning technologies, tertiary institutions around the world are exploring
new methods of teaching and learning, developing new programme delivery mechanisms, and addressing
the educational needs of new types of students. John F. Kennedy, an American president, once noted:
"Change is the law of life, and those who look only to the past or the present are certain to miss the future."
In a time of diminishing resources and increasing competition for students, universities can ill afford to
ignore future directions of IT use in education.
The University of Hong Kong has made a firm commitment to be a leader in the use of information
technology in education. It is the University's intent to move ahead rapidly to create a technology-rich
environment in which teaching, learning and research can thrive, and our students and staff can make
effective use of the latest advances in IT.
Our main strategy in this regard is the creation of a mobile computing environment on campus in which a
new "digital culture" can be fostered. Beginning September 1998, all incoming freshman are encouraged
and subsidized to own a notebook computer. In the first class under the new programme, approximately
2,600 students (86%) chose to participate.
To provide network access, over 10,000 access points are being installed across campus, off-campus dial-in
access is being significantly upgraded, and the University is experimenting with wireless networking
technologies. By the year 2001, in is envisaged that a technology-rich teaching and learning environment
will have been created at HKU. By that time, all HKU students may own a notebook computer with which
they will be able to access networked tools and resources from anywhere at anytime, both on and off
campus.
To achieve these goals, HKU invited creative partnership proposals from corporations interested in
working towards a common vision of using information technologies to improve educational opportunities
for students. We sought an innovation, visionary corporate partner who would not only offer us deeply
discounted hardware for students and staff, but also invest in collaborative research and development
efforts. After an exhausting process, the IBM Corporation was selected.
While creating a "mobile computing environment" at the University, we are also engaging in reform efforts
to make better use of IT in:
* Curriculum,
* Teaching & Learning Methodologies,
* Educational Resource Development & Access, Academic Staff Development,
* Infrastructure,
* Technical support,
* Information Services,
* Financial Planning, and
* Administrative Processes.
These reforms will enable all students and staff at the University to take full advantage of access to
notebook computers, networks, and networked information.
The Global Campus Project at the National University of Singapore
Yam San Chee, National University of Singapore
Several years ago, the National University of Singapore framed an IT Strategic Plan to lay the foundation
for the pervasive use of IT on campus: in teaching, learning, research, and adminstration. In
operationalizing this plan, an extensive IT infrastructure has been set up, embracing the following
elements: campus-wide networking, global networking, client-server based integrated information systems,
smart card based insfrastructure, remote lecturing and computing, high performance computing, online
transactions, library based information systems, and video-based services. These developments have taken
place against the backdrop of Singapore ONE, the nation's high-speed, ATM-based broadband network,
and collectively constitute the Global Campus Project.
The University has set up a secure plug and play network system with some 10,000 connection points
installed across the campus. In the academic year commencing July 1998, freshmen in selected faculties
were strongly encouraged to make use of notebook computers for their studies, for communicating with
faculty, as well as for the conduct of administrative tasks (eg. course registration). In addition, a campus-
wide Integrated Virtual Learning Environment (IVLE) has been set up. It provides a one-stop interface for
faculty and students from which to access relevant resources and perform tasks. For example, faculty are
able to make use of an electronic form to set up their course web pages while students can participate in
both asynchronous course discussion as well as real-time, Web-based chat.
In early 1999, the University established the Centre for Instructional Technology. The Centre has the
mission of intensifying the use of IT in both teaching and learning on campus. In addition to the IVLE
service mentioned previously, the new Centre now also supports courseware development, multimedia
conferencing, multimedia production, Webcast of lectures, and provides a student assistant plan to assist
faculty in the production of courseware. The establishemnt of the Centre reflects the University's strong
commitment to the creation of an IT-pervasive global learning environment on campus.
Implementing and Assessing Mobile Computing at Seton Hall University
Phillip D. Long, Seton Hall University
A Revolution Going On:
"There is a revolution going on at Seton Hall University because there is a revolution going on in society.
Information technology is a means for us to achieve our mission to prepare future leaders in a global
society. Seton Hall University's Information Technology Long Range Plan represents our commitment to
the use of information technology to achieve our mission and goals." Msgr. Robert T. Sheeran, President,
Seton Hall University
Equity and Access:
To take advantage of this transformation to an information culture people must be information literate: that
is, they must be able to locate, assess, analyze, and effectively communicate information. As a nation, we
cannot afford to have a portion of our citizenry that is left behind in this transition. As a Catholic
institution of higher education, Seton Hall believes that learning is both a private good and a public
responsibility. The University must therefore equip all its students to take full advantage of the
opportunities afforded by an information society.
Implementing this a program to create an information culture within the University provides guarantees.
Faculty can reasonably expect that students assigned work that requires technology will have access to it,
and be equipped to perform the work required. We are less concerned with distance learning, and more
concerned with 'connected learning.' That is, while recognizing the convenience that is afforded by online
access to instructional material, Seton Hall has concentrated on what elements of technology enhanced
instruction best integrate with traditional liberal arts education that emphasizes small classes and inter-
personal communication.
Piloting the Process:
Seton Hall piloted the laptop distribution program for three years, starting with 27 students in an initial
mobile computing cohort. This year 1366 laptops were distributed in two days to our first fully enabled
freshman class. Piloting the process enabled us to examine:
* Faculty support and training
* Curriculum revision strategies
* Asset management and distribution
* Software distribution
* Technical support
* Assessment practices and strategies
The Support Service Crisis and a Response:
Support for a large-scale technology deployment takes what already is a support service crisis and raises
the specter of creating a support service catastrophe. While increasing IT staff is an unavoidable
component, no higher education institution can hope to neither hire enough nor pay enough to keep
sufficient numbers of IT professional staff. Rather, Seton Hall has pursued an approach, which brings the
students forward as partners in the information technology support solution. The Student Technology
Assistant Program teaches students to participate with technologists and faculty in supporting the
community technology needs. In addition to the more traditional peer support, training and technical
repair responsibilities, students directly with faculty in curriculum revision teams. Their role is mediated
through a contract with the faculty establishing an intellectual barter - technical expertise of the student in
exchange for mentorship and faculty disciplinary guidance. The overall enterprise is designed to be student
run and student led. It addresses one of the most common oversights in student technology support
programs by building in leadership and supervision redundantly across the program, at all levels. This
project has become a national initiative of the AAHE/TLT Group and led to the designation of Seton Hall
University as a TLT Group Leadership Center. Currently seventeen campuses in three countries are
actively developing Student Technology Assistant Programs to address their local support service crises.
Knowing Where You've Been, Influencing Where You're Going:
Since the first laptops were distributed to students and faculty getting a handle on the student learning
experience and the faculty teaching experience has been an on-going initiative. Through collaboration with
the Flashlight Project (AAHE/TLT Group) and local development, an assessment process focusing on the
institutional level has resulted in a set of survey instruments, focus group protocols and journaling
guidelines that provide a consistent 'wide and shallow' indication of the impact of Mobile Computing on
teaching and learning at Seton Hall. The value of this approach has led to the creation of the Institute for
Technology Assessment to make these tools more widely available to interested institutions of higher
education. In return, the Institute seeks to collaborate with participating institutions to incorporate their data
into a longitudinal data repository to build an increasingly valuable community resource assessing the
impact technology intensive deployments have on teaching and learning.
Seton Hall is committed to higher education instilling in our graduates an ethic for community service and
leadership in the global affairs. Technology plays a central role in the liberal arts, in our community of
scholarship, and in seeking the to reinforce the connectedness that otherwise tends to dissipate in
information rich, values poor environments.
Implementing Assured Access/Mobile Computing at Sonoma State University
Mark Resmer, Sonoma State University
Recognizing that without a universal access policy, we risked creating a society of information haves and
have-nots among our students. In Fall 1995, Sonoma State University became one of the first two public
universities in the country to require that all incoming freshmen should have access to a networked
personal computer. This year, the requirement was extended to include incoming Junior transfer students.
By Fall 1998, all undergraduate students will be subject to the requirement.
Why do we need assured access to computers?
The driving force behind our Assured Access strategy is to make it possible for anyone to learn, any time,
any place. In doing so, we are reflecting the following factors:
* The growing amount and changing nature of knowledge
* Changes in educational paradigms
* The need for improved communications
* Workplace demands
* Legislative requirements
* A need for equity
* Technological change and obsolescence
Implementing the requirement did not relieve the university of all responsibility for information technology
access. To the contrary, assured access is a partnership, wherein the student provides basic access, while
the campus provides not only infrastructure support, but also specialized labs with high-end machines for
applications beyond the capacity of student owned machines.
From a business perspective, we treat student computers just like textbooks. Unlike other universities, we
do not require students to purchase a notebook computer from a specific vendor. The institution makes a
recommendation, but it is up to the student to make the business decisions associated with the purchase, i.e.
exactly what to obtain, where to buy it, and indeed whether to buy it. Just as with textbooks, we recognize
that while instructors can expect that students will have access to the required computer, there is no
enforcement associated with the recommendation. Sonoma has no "computer police"!
Our students can:
• Purchase the computer outright: Vendors have offered computers at specially discounted prices, and
the campus bookstore has limited its profit margins on computer sales.
• Obtain a loan, and use it to purchase a computer: A local credit union offers loan programs that are
tailored to student needs.
• Use financial aid: Financial aid facilitates the purchase of computers by a significant number of
students.
• Borrow a computer from a loan pool: Students who cannot afford any of the options above are offered
a yearlong loan of a computer from a pool of machines maintained for this purpose. To date, 180
computers have been loaned to the most needy students.
Our universal access program has elicited an extraordinary degree of enthusiasm and support from both
employers and the media, based on the perception that it is highly relevant to the needs of our "customers" -
both the students, and society at large. Indeed, in the business community, the program is seen as a move
by the university away from the isolationism of the "ivory tower" towards recognition of the real needs of
the outside world.
Motivating and Facilitating Learning with IT at Wake Forest University
Craig Runde, Wake Forest University
The special challenge for a college or a university is to create an environment with the people, policies, and
traditions that motivate and facilitate learning. In 1993, faculty, students and administrators of Wake Forest
University began work on a blueprint to enrich the quality of undergraduate education at the institution,
already nationally recognized as one of the finest private liberal arts universities in the country.
Wake Forest University decided to create a ubiquitous computing environment where students, faculty, and
staff members all had laptop computers and network access from on campus and remote access to the
campus network available via the IBM Global Network.
The University sought to use technology to provide a more customized learning experience for students.
This approach built on strength of providing an education that is both personal and individual. Before the
computer revolution, the way to personalize and customize education was to focus vast quantities of faculty
time upon teaching and students. Although faculty time and attention is still the key to personalization, a
student's education can now be customized through computer access.
If Wake Forest is to maintain its comparative advantage in both personal and individual education, it must
strengthen its means to personalize (which means more faculty) and strengthen its capacity to customize
(which means more computers). The Plan for the Class of 2000 incorporates both elements.
Professors, staff and students starting with the class of 2000 receive IBM ThinkPad computers which are
refreshed every two years. Software includes the Windows 95 operating system, the Netscape Navigator
Internet browser, Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, and PowerPoint) for word processing, financial analysis,
and presentations.
Virtually all Wake Forest offices, residence hall rooms, and classroom seats are directly linked to the
campus Ethernet network, which is based on IBM RS/6000 SP* servers and ATM switches. Special
laboratories have been equipped for Music, Writing, Business, Physics, Chemistry, the Languages, and
elsewhere.
A number of programs have been added to help both faculty and students effectively use the new
technology. These have included a Computer Enhanced Learning Initiative for faculty that provides
speakers, release time and training on how to incorporate technology in teaching and learning. It also
includes the Student Technology Advisors programs where faculty and students are paired on course
related technology projects.
Using Computer Imagery and Visualisation in Teaching, Learning and
Assessment
Dr N. Bouchlaghem, Dr N Beacham and William Sher
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
Loughborough University
Loughborough
Leicestershire
LE11 3TU
UK
Email: N.M.Bouchlaghem@lboro.ac.uk, N.Beacham@lboro.ac.uk and W.D.Sher@lboro.ac.uk
Abstract
Construction is an intrinsically visual discipline as many construction processes are underpinned by an
understanding of how structures are constructed and how constituent components fit together. This
paper describes CAL-Visual - a project funded by the Teaching Learning and Technology
Programme, Phase 3. It aims to implement the use of computer imagery to support teaching, learning
and assessment in subject areas where the visualisation of objects and processes is an intrinsic part of
the educational experience. Project partners include Loughborough University, De Montfort
University, University of Westminster, University of the West England and an industrial partner
(Tarmac Professional Services). In addition The Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB) also actively
supports the project.
The main objectives of the project include:
• making effective use of existing image archives as teaching, learning and assessment aids for
undergraduate and graduate use and CPD programmes.
• promoting the wide use of these archives in teaching building design and construction by
embedding the project deliverables in "Construction" programmes.
• promoting deep learning by using improved visualisation techniques.
The deliverables and outcomes expected from the project are:
• a report detailing methodologies for the use of images in teaching and assessment applicable to
the construction sector.
• a set of CD-ROMs for undergraduate, graduate and CPD use in the field of building design and
construction.
• training packs for academic and CPD tutors.
• transferable methodologies for using images in other disciplines.
The deliverables and outcomes of the project have direct application in all Higher Education
Institutions offering construction related courses (in the form of CD-ROMs, and teaching and training
packs). In addition we argue that these are equally relevant to other disciplines which use images in
teaching (such as Chemical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Pharmacology, Art and Design and
so on).
This paper describes progress on the CAL-Visual project so far. The partners are currently
providing the project with their existing archives of construction images. When these have been
classified and entered into CAL-Visual, they will constitute a comprehensive databank. To date
we have found that these images are used in an uncoordinated manner. A significant task
addressed by our project has thus been the development of a digital framework to support the
efficient use of existing and new imagery.
The framework development has involved investigating a number of classifications systems for the
indexing of visual material and a review of hybrid systems for publishing visual material on the
Internet, intranet and CD-ROM.
Finally, the project is investigating the use of virtual reality (VR) models as teaching aids in
lectures and as exploratory tool for students to use in place of construction site visits. These VR
models represent a type of building through which tutors and students can navigate and access the
information in the databank.
Publishing an imej Journal for Computer-Enhanced Learning
Jennifer Burg, Yue-Ling Wong, Dan Pfeifer, Anne Boyle, and Ching-Wan Yip
Wake Forest University
Winston-Salem, NC 27109
imej@wfu.edu
Abstract: Interactive multimedia electronic journals ( imej journals) are a publication
medium particularly suited for research in computer-enhanced learning. In this paper, we
describe the challenges and potential rewards in publishing such a journal; present ideas for
design and layout; and discuss issues of collaboration, copyrighting, and archiving unique to
imej publications.
Introduction
Electronic journals have proliferated in the past five years, popularized by their accessibility, searchability,
timeliness, and dynamism. Many publishers, universities, professional associations, and grant-supported agencies now
offer extensive electronic libraries. Notable among these are Johns Hopkins' Project Muse, VPI's Scholarly
Communications Project, Stanford's Highwire Press, Springer's Link collection, ACM's Digital Library, and the Mellon
Foundation's JSTOR (Schatz and Chen 1999). (Also see (Treloar 1998) for a short summary of electronic scholarly
publishing projects.) The majority of the online publications spawned in these projects are direct translations of existing
hard-cover journals to electronic form. But along with these, a large number of entirely new Web-only journals are
appearing as well. A good sampling of online journals can be found at http://gort.ucsd.edu/newjour/, which lists
thousands.
Web publishers all over the world are attracted to the electronic medium by low start-up costs and the potential
for wide and varied kinds of communication. Pictures, scrolling messages, online interviews, and music have become
common on popular and commercial Web sites, and scholarly electronic journals are beginning to explore the
possibilities of multimedia presentation as well. Art, music, and science journals have been among the first to use
multimedia effectively, drawing obvious benefit from the ability to display pictures, play music, or allow readers to
visualize the otherwise unseeable.
The other special facility of online communication -- interactivity -- remains relatively unexplored in scholarly
communication. Few of the new journals allow readers to interact with what they are reading in ways that go beyond
clicking on a play button, following a link, or joining a discussion forum. Interactivity is one of the most engaging
features of the Web, and the one which promises to evolve most strikingly as Web technology is developed. Web users
are intrigued by their window to the world, through which they can reach in, grab information, find out how things work,
and communicate with others far away with an immediacy that never ceases to amaze. In the scholarly world,
interactivity has great potential, since it might allow a reader to see, handle, replicate, verify, and truly understand the
work of a colleague. Data can be manipulated, graphs redisplayed, programs run, 3-D images rotated, and experiments
performed. Such uses of multimedia interactivity would distinguish Web journals as unique and valuable forums for
scholarly communication.
Multimedia interactivity of this type is more useful in some academic areas than in others, and computer-
enhanced learning is clearly one area where an interactive multimedia presentation would be most to the point. What
better way to explain effective uses of the computer in teaching than to show the readers what can be done, allowing
them to try things out themselves in a dynamic and interactive way? These thoughts were our motivation for the
founding of a new interactive multimedia electronic journal at Wake Forest University -- The IMEJ of Computer-
Enhanced Learning (imej.wfu.edu). In this paper, we tell how we have dealt with the unique problems that arise in the
creation of an imej journal, and offer our ideas on design and editorial policy. Our comments are directed to those
interested in developing their own imej journal, publishing their research in such a journal, or considering the evolution
of scholarly publication in the light of new technology.
Content
Computer-Enhanced Learning
Our development of The IMEJ of Computer-Enhanced Learning is motivated from three directions. First, we
are intrigued by the under-utilized potential of electronic publication. Second, we can see that educators have urgent
questions about the value of learning technology, and there are very few places where they can find practicable answers.
Many universities -- including Wake Forest -- have adopted new policies for student computer ownership, in some cases
providing a laptop for all students, in others requiring that all students buy computers with certain minimum
specifications (Brown, Burg, and Dominick 1998). Faculty feel pressed to find good uses for the computers, and their
questions are of quite a practical nature: What can I do and how can I do it? Will my students learn more or differently?
Our third motivation is to provide a forum where faculty can share their work in computer-enhanced learning most
effectively so that they can get feedback and be recognized for their innovations. An imej journal is an ideal medium for
their publications.
A great deal has been written in the abstract about computer-enhanced learning. There has been the usual hype
and over-raising of expectations, followed by the usual disappointment or skepticism. Many of the articles are thought-
provoking, but more often than not they lack particulars. The purpose of IMEJ is to respond to the public's interest in a
useful and concrete way. We would like to allow educators to tell how they have used learning technology, to describe
what has worked and what has failed. Our intent is that readers can take away an idea applicable to their own teaching.
Assessment
The element most lacking in research about computer-enhanced learning is objective assessment of the
effectiveness of particular applications. In many cases, educators have only begun experimenting with their ideas. The
arguments for the success of their projects are often intuitive and anecdotal -- because assessing how much students learn
is, after all, very difficult. In the main, the validity of anecdotal results is apparent. At the same time, we also desire to
promote further research based on objective, statistical analysis.
We encourage IMEJ authors to include evaluation as an integral part of their ideas and projects. IMEJ seeks
articles that describe -- in real terms and with testable interactive examples -- how computers have been used in
learning, including a description of the pedagogical results of their efforts. We anticipate that a more rigorous
assessment of learning technology will emerge as we build on our collective experiences, especially with the urging of
scholarly publications.
Form
Multimedia Interactivity
Having acknowledged the great potential of multimedia interactivity, we'd now like to retrench a bit, for our
first admonition to ourselves in the creation of IMEJ has been a reminder to use multimedia interactivity purposefully. It
is tempting at times to do things simply because you can do them -- add a scrolling LED sign, make an image move,
insert another picture, or plug in another audio file. But there are two very good reasons for restraint. The first is that if
an academic journal hopes to be taken seriously, cultivating a glitzy image is certainly not the way to do it. Even more
important is to keep in mind what a journal is all about. If the purpose of a journal is to inform or present new ideas, then
its multimedia elements should be directed to that end. This isn't as boring as it sounds, as if we no longer value
engaging our readers by first capturing their attention. Yes, we want a journal to be engaging, but we want, after all, to
engage the readers in ideas and substance, and this can be done most effectively by focusing their attention and not
annoying them with distractions.
It's just as easy to get carried away with hyperlinks. Hyperlinks have been a source of great enthusiasm among
technology-minded writers. In the imaginative vein, they offer a non-linearity of text that opens new avenues for
creative expression. In expository writing, hyperlinks proliferate for a different reason. Writers often see them as a
service to the readers, pointing them to relevant information. Yet rather than offering an abundance of helpful
information and related thoughts, as the writer may intend, these links can overwhelm the reader with a labyrinth of
sidetracks, detours, and dead ends.
In summary, we offer the following guidelines for multimedia development, and recommend analogous ones to
developers of imej journals in other subject areas.
• Use multimedia elements for clarification, explanation, and illustration. Allow the user to experiment and try things
out, in an environment where it is clear what to do (Figure 1).
• For demonstrations of applications or programs implemented by the author, consider using scaled-down simulations
rather than providing external links to the full application. (See http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/WFUAcadia/index.asp,
which simulates exploring a Lotus Notes/Wake Forest Template database.) This has a number of advantages: The
readers' attention can be directed to the features under discussion; the readers can be instructed more clearly in how
to run the example; and the simulation can be maintained at the journal's own Web site, avoiding the danger of a
dead link
1
in the paper if the author's application is later moved.
Figure 1: Instructions for interactive multimedia are clearly labeled and marked with arrows.
Figure 2: Reader has a choice between a self-propelled demo and an interactive one.
Links to full applications at external Web sites are marked as such.
1
Dead links are links that lead to Web pages that no longer exist or are otherwise inaccessible.
• Consider offering self-propelled demos (in the form of screencams, Java applets, etc.) alongside interactive ones so
that readers can see how things are supposed to work before they try them out themselves (Figure 2).
• As much as possible, limit external links
2
in the text of an article. This helps the readers stay focused, since external
links can lead to large Web sites that can be confusing or distracting. It also limits the number of hyperlinks that can
later become dead links, which are a real annoyance to readers. Links to an author's fully-implemented application
or to other external Web sites should be set aside from the text and marked as external (Figure 2). This points the
readers to further information without sidetracking them as they are trying to understand particular points.
Design and Layout
In the design of IMEJ , we have sought a clean, uncluttered look and interactive elements that are easy to use
and adaptable to different user environments. Again, the versatility of Web publication can be a trap, leading to screens
crowded with frames, toolbars, and buttons, and requiring too many steps from one page to the next. Simplicity, clarity,
and usability should remain foremost design principles, as outlined in the following suggestions:
• Make windows as uncluttered as possible. Too many format selections, frames, and toolbars take up too much space
and detract from user-friendliness.
• In navigation, make it easy for readers to return to previous pages. Have accessible arrows that lead back to the top.
Don't spawn a new window unnecessarily.
• For portability, use the most general file formats in multimedia development, in the sense that they run on the widest
variety of platforms. When more than one format is being offered, present concise and clearly labeled choices
(Figure 2). If possible, dynamically detect the reader's environment so that multimedia elements can be presented in
the appropriate format in a manner that is transparent to the user.
• Make articles easily printable and scrollable. We prefer allowing the reader to scroll continuously through an article
rather than click through pages with a link. In this way, the full article can be easily printed directly from the Web
page.
• Maximize information accessibility. Allow searches from multiple points of entry. In addition to global keyword
searching, we also offer more precise queries on date of publication, author's name, and pedagogical approach. In
addition, the reader can browse the search engine's list of pedagogical approaches
• Use a consistent format for articles. An article template can ultimately save time for the Web developers and ensure
consistency of format, especially when new Web developers are brought onto the journal staff.
Unique Challenges and Issues for imej Journals
Collaboration
One of the unique characteristics of online publication is its collaborative nature. On the one hand, an imej
journal should have its own multimedia development team who have developed standards for multimedia design and
layout. On the other hand, authors contributing articles to imej journals -- especially on the subject of computer-
enhanced learning -- are likely to be adept computer-users themselves. Some may have created their own applications in
learning technology, they generally have their own ideas about how their material should be presented, and in many
cases they have already put it online. Creating the appropriate multimedia elements for their articles, however, does not
involve merely inserting a link to their already-existing Web site. We envision a journal that is coherent in design and
layout and articles that are focused and self-contained, with restraints on the number of links leading to Web sites that we
cannot maintain ourselves. Consequently, development of an imej article necessitates a kind of collaboration between
author, editors, and multimedia developers not required in other kinds of journals.
Thus far, the collaboration has gone more easily than one might expect. We've had to give up publication of
only one article so far, by mutual consent with the authors, who preferred a multimedia layout inconsistent with our
design. All other articles have been developed fairly smoothly through an exchange of ideas, suggestions, and files in
the needed format.
2
We define an external link as a link to a Web page not maintained on our own server.
Discussion Forums and Peer Review
Feedback from readers of imej journals can come from two sources: the initial peer review of articles, and
subsequent comments from readers through online discussion forums. Some electronic journals are combining these two
steps in their overall procedure for editorial review of submitted articles (Shum and Sumner 1998).
All articles in The IMEJ of Computer-Enhanced Learning are carefully peer reviewed. Publishing articles from
all disciplines of higher education (and a few from K-12), IMEJ has Editorial Board members from a wide variety of
fields. Our editorial procedure is to assign the coordination of review of an article to an Editorial Board member in a
discipline close to that of the article's content. That Board member finds three readers and handles the review process.
Details are at http://imej.wfu.edu/infoforauthor.asp.
IMEJ offers a discussion forum for an article at the request of its authors. The forum is a service both to the
authors, who often would like feedback on what they're doing, and the readers, who may seek more information or
exchange of ideas. The discussion forums are generally unmoderated. However, we urge the authors to read their
discussion forum and respond to comments. We also will delete any harassing comments from the forum at the authors'
request.
Copyright and Archiving
Another unique feature of online publication is its dynamic nature. As opposed to hard-copy publications,
online articles are easily edited and changed. However, for practical reasons -- so that they can be copyrighted, properly
cited, and archived, for example -- it is necessary to arrive at a final version of articles.
IMEJ's policy is to post preprints of articles about a month before final publication of an issue, giving authors a
last chance to make changes. At the release of an issue, the article is fixed in form. After that time, the only changes we
foresee are the possible labeling of dead links or the addition of dated addenda or errata pages by the author.
IMEJ requires copyright for all articles. The copyright agreement states that the article has not been and will
not be republished elsewhere, it will not be reproduced without permission of IMEJ , and it will not be made available
online at any Web site other than IMEJ 's. Links to the article can be made from any other Web site, however. The
copyright agreement also allows us to make copies of any issue for transport or archiving on portable secondary storage
such as CD's or DVD's. Our copyright information is available at http://imej.wfu.edu/infoforauthor.asp#copyright.
Archiving raises new problems in electronic journals. If an article is to be considered a reference of some
lasting value, it must be accessible over time. A number of questions arise. How long should issues remain online? In
what format should they be archived after this time? If they are kept on disk, how much disk space will be required? If
they are kept in some other format, how long will that format last physically (e.g., what is the shelf-life of a CD?) How
long will that format be viable technologically? (e.g., will there be CD players around 20 years from now?) How will
the journal handle requests for copies of articles that are archived? What happens if a journal folds? Who will handle
requests for archived articles if there is no longer anyone on the journal staff?
Our policy decision at present is to keep issues online for at least two years. After that, they will remain on
secondary storage, but active links to back issues may no longer be available at the journal's Web site. Archives will be
protected by a standard backup policy. We are considering making archive copies in other formats as well, such as CD's,
DVD's, and/or traditional printed form. The journal staff will handle requests for archived articles by sending electronic
copies or printed versions. Back issues will be stored in the Wake Forest University Archives.
Conclusion
We have offered the conclusions drawn from our experience in developing an imej journal in the hope that they
may be of use to others with similar interests. This is where we are in our thinking in April of 1999, with IMEJ's
inaugural issue to appear at the end of the month. The potential value of interactive multimedia scholarly publication is
certainly worth exploring, and our initial foray into the area indicates that the special editorial and production challenges
are not a bar to its development.
References
Brown, D. G., Burg, J., and Dominick, J. L. (1998). A Strategic Plan for Ubiquitous Laptop Computing.
Communications of the ACM, 41 (1), 26-35.
Shum, S. B., and Sumner, T. (1998). New Scenarios in Scholarly Publishing and Debate. In The Knowledge Web:
Learning and Collaborating on the Net. Marc Eisenstadt and Tom Vincent, eds. London: Kogan Page.
Schatz, B. and Chen, H. (1999) Digital Libraries: Technological Advances and Social Impacts. Computer , Feb. 1999,
45-87.
Treloar, A. E. Libraries' New Role in Electronic Scholarly Publishing. Communications of the ACM , 41 (4), 88-89.
Languages and Statistics: Solutions for the support of online learning.
Andrew Burrell
Macquarie University
The University Online Teaching Facility is used across all disciplines to support both on- and off-campus
students. The facility incorporates both WebCT and locally written software including an online evaluation
service. This poster/demonstration will outline how the University has used the facility to provide solutions for
three educational problems: the support of foreign language teaching in distance mode; using the quiz module to
provide an accessible assessment facility for Introductory Statistics; and collecting and evaluating survey data.
WebCT allows the foreign language instructor to use diacritic characters (French and German), 2-byte characters
(Japanese) and audio in most tools using the target language. Problems with using Internet-based communication
that does not preserve diacritics are overcome by using WebCT. Japanese 2-byte characters are handled by
software that works in conjunction with WebCT and audio can be embedded in the quizzes to allow automatic
correction of listening exercises.
A network-based statistics quiz assessment package used weekly by some 2000 students could only be accessed
in two laboratories. Access in both terms of location and time has been expanded by using WebCT. Solutions
were also developed to cope with handling the large numbers of students in the WebCT student management
database.
Online evaluation tools are used to survey students as part of the formative and summative evaluation process
incorporated into many of the online courses. Unit convenors can select from banks of questions covering areas
such as access, assessment and feedback, communication, flexibility, resources, learning and understanding,
usability, guidance and training, and also add their own questions to the survey module. The results are
presented in three different ways: by individual
question, by respondent and by question type. A special feature is hyperlinking between the different formats
which allows for easy cross-matching of information.
Units in other disciplines and programs such as Geography, Creative Arts, and Early Childhood will also be
available for demonstration.
Meaningfully Incorporating Technology into Graduate and Undergraduate Courses
In A College of Education
Ni Chang, Ed.D.
University of Wisconsin
800 W. Main St.
Whitewater, WI 53190
changn@uwwvax.uww.edu
414-472-5798
Introduction
With the germination of incorporating technology into students' learning at the college and university level, literature has
shown that technology benefits students' learning (Bazillion, & Braun, 1998; Berger, 1998; Grossman,1999; McCandless,
1998; Raschke,1998). The merits attribute to different software and technology applied in the education of college students.
However, it is an inappropriate practice to infuse technology into curriculum without a careful consideration of possible
outcomes how the application of a type of technology can affect students' understanding of concepts. The pedagogical goal
aims at assisting students' understanding of content of coursework with technology rather than about technology.
Demographically, it is true that characteristics of students' needs and demands to instruction and learning are matchless.
Even teaching a same course in a same university over years, an instructor finds that he may encounter groups of students
with different attributes and competence in learning. How to use technology effectively requires a careful examination and
investigation from the instructor on the impact of uses of technology on students' maximal development in learning.
There exists another reason associated with the inappropriateness in teaching students about technology. In the
contemporary technology world, many children are capable of handling a certain type of technology. Many more will soon
join the club. Being pre-service teachers, students have to be aware of how to stimulate and promote children mastering
concepts effectively with technology. In this sense, college instructors should first and foremost be trained properly. It is
imperative for an instructor to pay attention to how learning process with technology is structured. What and how an
instructor performs in class will surely affect how pre-service teachers will manage their classroom instruction with
technology in the future. Meaningless integration of technology contributes little to an in-depth exploration of learning that
plays an unimportant role in the enhancement of students' comprehension of content work.
Reflective Practices
To bring about the effective learning results, it requires an instructor to motivate learners' desire in lore. With respect to
employing technology to teach, an instructor should possess rich ideas of how to integrate technology meaningfully into
college curriculum, which should result from trials and errors. Much reflection and self- analysis should be part of this
process. It is advocated that an instructor provides a wide array of opportunities to invite students' voices regarding the
effect on the application of technology as tools in the assistance of learning as a means to ameliorate outcomes of teaching
and learning.
Respecting feedback and views from students is crucial in the situation where an instructor is concurrently responsible for
four courses in one semester. It is a usual case that a group of same students take two or three out of the four courses that
this instructor is teaching during a semester. In this situation, an instructor is required to come up with diversified
approaches in teaching and in assigning homework using technology. Employing an analogous method in this regard
throughout one semester may decrease otherwise the great desire that students hold for learning. By virtue of this analysis,
technology should be incorporated appropriately into the curricular content rather than as a discrete task besides intellectual
learning requirement. For example, searching resources from the Internet is an advisable approach for students to extend
their knowledge base that may not be encompassed in a class lecture. Locating important and useful information from the
Internet as an assignment or a part of a class makeup apparently increases the academic growth of students. However, if this
mode of technology crops up in each of the four courses, for which this particular instructor is responsible, a minimum
learning effect may take place. Students may grow a feeling of tiredness out of this repeated usage of technology and find
learning monotonous and tedious. Exhaustion may distract their attention away from major learning tasks.
Kelly and Leckbee (1998) indicate, "Simply adding technology to existing instructional process and structure have, in many
instances, proven to be ineffective . . . What is needed is a meaningful integration of technology into the instruction
process" (p. 24). Based on Kelly and Leckbee and due to the reasons provided above, I have cautioned and been concerned
about the productiveness of students' learning. To take an appropriate action, I have experimented in different ways to
incorporate technology into the content of learning, which affirms my pedagogical philosophy. My pedagogical philosophy
is heavily rooted in the principle of constructivism. A constructivist classroom is built based on mutual respect between
students and an instructor, constant improvement of instructional strategies and risk-taking. I firmly believe that in
constructivist classroom, students' learning is meaningful and purposeful with the incorporation of technology. Assigning
students grades is not an instructor's destination of teaching. Rather, exerting great efforts to help students construct an
understanding with methods of technology is an end of learning and instruction.
Infusion Technology into Instruction and Inquiry
Listserv across the World: As such, I created different ways of infusing technology in courses that I hold full
accountability. Previous teaching experience informed me that the majority of students had few chances communicating
with teachers out in the field when the students are studying in a college of education. To expand their knowledge spectrum
and to grasp every opportunity to foster their growth, I guided one of classes to launch conversation electronically with the
teachers working with young children. This activity brought about more profits than problems and difficulties that my
students and I experienced in this learning process. Some of the students even wanted to continue their communication with
teachers across the world after graduating from my class.
Listserv on Campus: In another class, I hooked up with one another by email created on the campus. I came up with this
idea due to the fact that in the contemporary society, the majority of people have busy schedules. Personal communications,
therefore, become less possible. My students faced the same problem. This communicative means provides possibilities to
extend in-class discussion and enrich the discussion content. The students in the meanwhile are able to learn from one
another via negotiation and teamwork.
The Application of the Hypernews: The hypernews is well known as asynchronous platform, which I have been guiding my
students to use it since the summer of 1997. And yet, I have gone beyond this focus to more meaningful and purposeful
ends.
For asynchronous discussion: While giving credit to the use of listserv created on campus for the students to
communicate with one another outside the classroom, this type of learning tool still set limits to users (Graves, 1998). In
contrast, the hypernews to serve this purpose is promising because it provides convenience to the users. Students, while
conversing with one another electronically and advancing their understandings of topics under discussion, attained
technological skills, such as typing, deleting, sending, and retrieving messages in addition to unexpected problem-solving
skills. The skills that students will use in their later courses or personal and professional growth (Graves, 1998).
Publicizing learning products: In addition to communication via the HyperNews, I also used the tool of the
HyperNews to encourage students to learn from one another by publishing papers, bookmarks, and writing comments after
reading relevant papers, enriching the traditional classroom learning experiences (Graves, 1998).
Distance learning: I organized my graduate students to have a synchronous discussion when every student had
time but it was not in a originally scheduled time. Graduates from this university are mostly full-time teachers, who have to
hold Teacher-Parent conferences once every semester. To ensure the quality of learning, I tried to use the hypernews for
make-up time purpose.
Power Point: Power Point was used in instruction to inspire students to seek answers for themselves when taking into
account the issues like computers and young children. Power Point raised many questions to the students who were
encouraged to ponder over "At what age do young children learn with computers?" "How to evaluate software for young
children appropriately?" "How to teach young children learn with technology?" "How to introduce technology
appropriately to the learning of young children?" "Should young children be left unnoticed at the computer?" "Should
computers be clustered in a computer lab or should computers be installed in individual classrooms?" The presentation
through this means activated the heated discussion among the students.
Conclusion
Generally, the multiple ways of infusing technology into curricular learning at a college of education in a meaningful and
purposeful manner creates non-linear learning phenomenon. Technology has paved the way for many of us to ease and
solve certain problems that we have encountered in our daily life. Let's put technology to work (Grossman, 1999). "The
more involving the learning techniques are, the greater the chance that learning will be retained. Students who interact with
course materials make commitments and predictions try out ideas, and get response to those ideas—all of which may be
fostered through the use of technology—have the greatest chance of overall retention and integration of learning" (Berger,
1998, p. 20). "Using computer, An instructor has been able to go beyond the traditional linear regression curriculum to
cover cluster analysis and the rudiments of factor analysis." Get rid of linear learning mode but take up to complex and self-
paced learning.
Learning and teaching with technology encourages active inquiry, making learning complex but making possible learning
events taking place at anytime, anyplace. Students construct knowledge at pace needed by individual student while
accelerating learning capabilities in negotiation and team efforts. Participating in on-line discussion asynchronously as well
synchronously, students are compelled to think critically and learn from others, which creates contextual learning
experiences and making learners "go beyond traditional memorization of facts and fundamentals". This learning approach
broadens the students' concepts but also enhance their acquisition of learning skills, such as electronic learning skills that
may be used in their future courses or later personal and professional growth (Bazillion & Braun, 1998, p. 37).
Reference
Bazillion, R. & Braun, C. (1998). Teaching on the web and in the studio classroom. Syllabus, Vol. 11(8), 37-39.
Berger, C. (1998). Ann Jackson and the four myths of integrating technology into teaching. Syllabus, Vol. 11 (7), 18-20.
Kelly, J. T., & Leckbee, R. (1998). Reality check: What do we really know about technology, and how do we know about
it? Syllabus, Vol. 12 (1), 24-26.
Graves, W. (1998). Learning as an expedition, technology as a unifying tool. Syllabus,Vol. 12 (1), 20-22.
Grossman, S. (1999). Introduction Speech in Democratic National Committee Meeting. Democratic National Committee
Meeting, Mar. 20, 1999.
McCandless, G. (1998). Creating a level playing field for campus computing: Universal access. Syllabus, Vol. 11 (6), 12-14
and 29.
Raschke, C. (1998). Digital culture, the third knowledge revolution, and the coming of the hyperuniversity. Syllabus, Vol.
11(7), 14-16.
A Wide Array of Uses: Inquiry and Instruction with the HyperNews
In University Courses
Ni Chang, Ed.D.
Assistant Professor
University of Wisconsin
800 W. Main St.
Whitewater, WI 53190
changn@uwwvax.uww.edu
414-472-5798
Problem
Many instructors are using the HyperNews in their courses at college or university levels. The HyperNews is
commonly employed for the purpose of asynchronous discussions. This discussion arena provides students an
avenue to know and communicate with one another outside a classroom. In the contemporary society, given the fact
that the majority of people have busy schedules, personal communications become less possible. My students face
the same problem. They meet with one another when sharing a class, but soon after the class is dismissed, my
students have to run due to work demands or other requirements. Time constraint permits students to exchange little
view that the content of a class impossibly covers but is concerned by many people in the same field. This dilemma
deprives the students of chances to exchange concerned ideas and of potential opportunities to expand knowledge.
This limitation also leaves me little room to dispense necessary information that a class period usually does not
permit but that may interest those who desire to know more.
Resolution
How to solve this problem is the center point of my concern. Like many other faculty members in the higher
education, I eventually offered the students a platform where they were able to launch a dialogue regarding
interested concepts or issues and pose questions. This platform also enabled me to communicate with my students
the needed information. This platform is the HyperNews. The HyperNews made it possible to meet the needs of the
students and the instructor. Many issues and ideas were discussed and the scope of knowledge was expanded. I was
able to communicate with the students whenever as needed. Apparently, the students found beneficial in this mode
of learning. I was agreeable with the students based on experience of using the HyperNews as a communication tool
for several semesters. Students, while conversing with one another electronically and advancing their
understandings, attained technological skills, such as typing, deleting, sending, and retrieving messages in addition
to unexpected problem-solving skills.
Other Uses of the Hypernews
Besides of the fact that the hypernews is used as a tool for students and instructors to transmit and convey ideas and
suggestions in their teaching and learning, what other functions does the hypernews play in educational instruction?
This is always one of my other concerns in infusing technology into a classroom setting to make learning easy and
understandable.
Cooperative Learning Tool: I value students' time and results of learning and encourage students to learn from one
another by reading and sharing each other's ideas and learning results. To serve this end, it was a usual practice that
a considerable amount of time and paper was used for printing out all projects that students presented in the class at
the end of each semester. Gradually, I discovered that after much paper and time devoted on this product, some
students did not read others' work due to a time restraint. To avoid further waste and bring about the productive
learning, I bravely took a risk in instruction. Encouraging students to publish their projects on the hypernews was
thus rendered. In this demonstration, I will share with the audience the insight into this mode of teaching. The
difficulties that my students and I encountered and the profits the students gained from this practice in the past years
will also be part of this demonstration..
Sharing with others in a class serves one end of learning and teaching. Cooperative learning serves the other. I did
not feel content by assigning grades to students' paper but satisfied with the genuine achievement that students
made. Obtaining knowledge and increasing understanding actually is the central point of the interaction between
college students and me. The role of an instructor plays in the education of students is vital and fundamental. It is an
instructor who orchestrates students to achieve the desirable outcome of learning in a systematic way.
Acknowledging the importance, I went further by utilizing the hypernews in the learning and teaching process. As
another assignment that invited students to extend their knowledge base, I requested the students to read from the
screen what their classmates have done and to finish this assignment by providing appropriate comments in response
to their readings. From what they wrote, I was able to collect additional data regarding how my students understood
learned concepts and how I would continue modifying my instructional strategies. In this demonstration, pros and
cons will be discussed and shared with the audience.
Distance Learning: When having a group of graduate students who are teachers in public schools, an instructor may
have to face a situation that one or two students cannot attend a certain class during a semester. Frequent absence
caused by one or two students in each class period affected the flow of teaching and students' understanding of the
content of work. To solve the problem, I took another risk by utilizing the hypernews as a distance learning device.
Having students be in front of computers either at their own homes or places near their houses, my students and I
launched conversations in a scheduled time when everybody had was free from an obligation given by a school. Our
flexibility and new way of teaching and learning elicited advantages and merits. In this demonstration, I would like
to present to the audience how I did this learning project, gains and difficulties my students and I experienced.
Again, in graduate classes, I sustained the spirit of collaborative learning by encouraging the students to share what
they found from the Internet. To share with one another on line, I adapted the means of the hypernews again: the
students attained new ideas from each other in respect to their located resources from the Internet by using
Bookmarks. None of the graduate students that I taught knew how to use bookmarks. Within a short period of time
along with my instruction on the use of Bookmarks, they mastered the skill. Via the hypernews, the students
publicized their bookmarks on the hypernews linking to the found resources. The students found enjoyable
exchanging their findings with one another on line. They grew much academically. Yet, this innovation experienced
unexpected problems that will be reported and discussed with the audience in this demonstration.
Summary
Generally, the infusion of the hypernews into the instruction and inquiry of graduate and undergraduate plays a
significant role in the students' construction of knowledge, providing them with flexibility and opportunities to learn
at their own paces and their convinced time. Through a wide variety of methods of using the hypernews as a tool or
device, students accomplished and achieved in a meaningful way. Although much thoughts and time have been
given to ways of how to incorporate the hypernews into students' learning and inquiry, I personally feel fulfilled and
take a pride in what I have succeeded. However, although it is a rewarding practice, it is my belief that there is a
need for improvement. I will continue to explore with others the effective utilization of the hyeprnews in college
instructions and inquiry.
Effects of Question-Based Learning in a Hypermedia
Intelligent-Assisted Learning Environment
Ching Hui Alice Chen
Department of Information Management
Ming Chuan University
Taipei, R. O. C.
Achen@mcu.edu.tw
Feng-Hsu Wang
Department of Information Management
Ming Chuan University
Taipei, R. O. C.
Fhwang@mcu.edu.tw
The Problems
Due to the entry-examination system, almost all the schools in Taiwan emphasize more on memorization and
test-taking skills. Although students have high scores in mathematics examinations, their problem solving skills
are still in the low-level of thinking stage. Students spent hundreds of hours in the crane schools for test-taking
skill in order to get high test scores. Students do not have the ability and have no attention to enhance their high-
order thinking skill. In this manner, teachers have no liberty and time to design meaningful learning
environment. The purpose of this study is to find a solution for both the students and teachers, to provide
students the opportunity to enhance their knowledge and skills, to provide teachers an alternative way to enrich
classroom learning activities.
Theoretical Framework
For most feedback studies, the information contained in the feedback session is presented to the learner.
Most posttests and retention tests require learners to recall what they have learned from the instruction, and the
level of learning rarely extends beyond rote memorization. In this manner, learners have no opportunity to
engage in what Salomon and Globerson (1987) described as "mindful behavior". In order to engage in mindful
behavior, the learning situation should be introduced in a way that learners will be able to examine and elaborate
situational cues, to generate alternative learning strategies, to gather information, and to draw connections
between old and new information. Some feedback studies have reported significant results on immediate tests,
but not on retention tests. During most feedback instruction, learners received feedback information passively
without actively organizing and applying their knowledge. In most feedback research, information is stored as
facts rather than as tools. Therefore, information is not spontaneously used to solve problems. A few studies
suggested that when information is introduced in a problem-solving context, it is more likely to be used in new
contexts than remain inert (Lockhart, Lamon, & Gick, 1988; Perkins & Salomon, 1989).
In the learning process, the learner is more easily to understand and acquire factual knowledge, while it is
more difficult for them to generate critical thinking and to obtain higher-order thinking skills. A number of
theorists have emphasized the importance of helping students to engage in generative rather than passive
learning activities (Chi, et. al., 1989; Minstrell, 1989). It is assumed that learning is an active, constructive
process whereby learners generate meaning for information by accessing and applying existing knowledge
(Jonassen, 1991). Relating knowledge and personal experience in learning is one of the major components in
situated cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). In situated learning, learners should be able to see how
knowledge may be applied in new situations through analogies and similarities to the situations they learned in
(Collins, 1991). Therefore, knowledge is more likely to be stored in a way that is usable in novel contexts.
The notion of situated learning is parallel to constructivistic learning. Constructivists tend to favor problem-
solving activities that are linked to student interests, that have some attributes of real-world problem, and that are
meaningful and satisfying for students to solve. From the constructivitics perspective, interest is the fuel of the
constructive process. Without interest, the learners will never make the constructive effort to make sense out of
experience (DeVries, 1993). Therefore, it is very important to design instruction in which learners are motivated
to be mentally active in the context of instructional activities.
Learning Environment
This research proposes a hypermedia intelligent-assisted learning system (HIALS) which provides
hypermedia learning courseware and intelligent knowledge. The learning environment was produced using
Authorware (4.0), Director (6.0) and XClips. The content of the instruction is learning physics knowledge for
middle school students. Three real world scenarios are used as the body of the instruction, each scenario
contains stories related to the daily life experiences. Students have the full control over the sequence of the
instruction.
After viewing the scenarios, students have to answer questions. The questions are video clips from the
scenarios that require students to identify physics theories to explain the phenomena occurred in the video.
Students need to check the answers from a list of physics theories. When students produce incorrect responses,
the intelligent tutor will provide guiding. The intelligent tutor either refers students to the related video clips, or
provides hints or explanations. Students are encouraged to navigate the hypermedia database and search for
solutions under the guidance of our intelligent tutoring system. The system records students' navigation
processes; therefore, researchers will be able to trace learners' learning paths, and analyze their learning patterns.
Pilot Study
Two instruments were used in this study. The physics knowledge test has 30 items and the 5 Likert scale
science attitude test consists of 35 items. Both instruments were created from the researchers and two content
experts. The reliability for the attitude test is 0.9. 16 third-year senior high school students from a suburban area
of Taipei City participated in this pilot study. One week before the experiment, subjects took both the
knowledge and attitude tests as the pretest score. Subjects took both tests again one week after the experiment as
the posttest score. Two t-test were performed using Statistic program to examine the differences between the
two sets of scores. The t-test for knowledge did not reveal any significant result. There was a significant
difference (P <0.05) for the attitude test indicating that subjects had better feeling toward science before the
experiment than after.
Summary
The results from the pilot study cannot provide conclusive findings due to the small sample size. The study
did give researchers some insights for the learning environment and learning process. Researchers will conduct
another experiment, hope to find meaningful evidences on learners' problem solving in science learning, and
provide guideline for instructional design.
References
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18
(1), 32-42.
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and
use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science , 13 , 145-182.
Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology. In L. Idol & B.F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values
and cognitive instruction: Implications for reforms (pp. 121-138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
DeVries, R. (1993, April). Using constructivist theory and research to design a framework for curriculum and assessment.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Evaluating constructivistic learning. Educational Technology, 31 (9), 28-33.
Lockhart, R. S., Lamon, M., & Gick, M. L. (1988). Conceptual transfer in simple insight problems. Memory and Cognition,
16(1), 36-44.
Minstrell, J. A. (1989). Teaching science for understanding. In L. B. Resnick & L. E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking
curriculum: Current cognitive research (pp. 129-149). Alexandria, VA: American Society for Curriculum Development.
Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher, 18 (1), 16-25.
Whitehead, A. N. (1929). The aims of education. New York: MacMillan.
The EFFECTS of TRAINGING METHOD on LANGUAGE LEARNING PERFORMANCE
Huey-Wen Chou
Associate Professor, Department of Information Management
National Central University
#38 Wu-Chuan Li, Chungli city, Taiwan, ROC
E-mail: hwchou@im.mgt.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of two cooperative computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) environments on learners' spelling performance and learning attitude. The two
cooperative CALL environments are face-to-face and distance cooperative CALL environments. Traditional
classroom lecture learning environment and self-directed CALL environment are employed as control groups.
Learning performance and learning attitude, including interpersonal relationships, learning interests, and self-
esteem, were the dependent variables.
64 seventh graders from a local public junior high school were randomly assigned to four treatments. An
experiment was conducted for data collection. The experiment lasted for ten days with a thirty-minute learning
session on each day. It was found that there were significant performance differences among learning
environments. No significant group differences were found in any dimension of attitudinal measures. Plausible
explanations about the findings are provided and future implications follow.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of computer-assisted learning (CAL) in various pedagogical settings is rapidly increasing. Researchers have
reported CAL to be effective in many training situations. Its applications on language learning, for example, has been verified
that it can enhance learners' language learning. Many of the CALs are based on a system-driven design and are used as an aid
for self-directed study.
Recently, one of the research lines in CAL is the remote (distance) learning through educational network (Hoppe et al.
1994), that may be attributed to the relative novelty of the rapidly evolving network technology. Multi-user telecommunication-
enabled cooperative learning environment on CAL becomes feasible in many pedagogical applications (Alavi 1994; Lin 1992).
In addition, with the rapid growth of related technology and dropping of hardware prices, multimedia applications are receiving
considerable worldwide attention within the field of instructional technology. By accessing and integrating versatile
information, such as video, sound, image, and text, multimedia applications in education afford a great potential in improving
teaching quality.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section reviews literature on (1) cooperative learning environment, (2) self-directed learning environment, (3) CALL,
(4) cooperative CALL environment and distance cooperative CAL environment.
2.1 COOPERATIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
It was argued that learning environment with various degrees of social context would affect learners' learning motives,
which, in turn, will have differential effects on learners' performance (Berlyne 1978). The origin of cooperative learning can be
traced far back to the ancient Rome Times (Hooper, 1992). Slavin (1983) employed behavior, task structure, motivation, and
incentive structure to define cooperative learning. Researchers proclaimed that under cooperative learning context, a learner
can make a contribution to another learner's both cognitive and emotional consequences by providing hints, advice, feedback,
correction, evaluation, and encouragement. Table 1 showed a summary on it.
Researcher(s) Year Type Performance Attitudinal Measures
Sharan 1980 I Better learning performance
Johnson et al 1981 M Better learning performance
Bryant 1982 I Conceptual change
Slavin 1983 M Favored low-achievers Improved relationships among
different racial students
Scott 1974 I No significant differences Better attitude to schooling
Johnson et al 1985 I 1.Better than other types of learning
2.Improved problem solving
Enhanced interaction among various
abilities students
Yager
Yager, et al
1985
1986
I 1.Better learning transfer
2.Better long-term retention
3.Better learning performance
1.Higher learners interaction
2.Better attitude towards others
3.Improved self-esteem
Brown &
Reeve
1987 Benefits of members' combined knowledge
and shared expertise
Slavin 1987 I Significant at elementary level
Dalton et al. 1989 I Better performance
Chang 1990 I Superior to self-directed learning Feel bored about learning tasks
Hooper et al 1993 I better learning outcome
*
: In the 3
rd
column, "I" represents an individual study and "M" represents a meta study.
Table 1. The Effects of Cooperative Learning on Performance and attitudinal measures
*
.
In the cooperative learning, group members share a variety of thinking roles. Research results indicated that in group
setting, peers are important models for their age-mates. In a cooperative learning environment, peers serve as effective tutors
and cooperators. In other cases, they can also serve as good or bad examples (Piaget 1965), they can learn through social
contact with peers to shape or correct his/her logical structure. Piaget (1965) suggested that the exposure to social context by
peer interactions is a valuable experience and provides precious asset to learners in shaping internal cognitive structures. He
indicated that peer interaction can offer three advantages in individual's learning process. Firstly, the different point views
brought from peer interactions provide the learner an opportunity to experience cognitive conflicts. Secondly, through the
process of adjusting with cognitive conflicts, the learner will become less-egocentrismed in developing cognitive structure.
Thirdly, The internal state of disequilibrium resulted from cognitive conflicts, which is one of the most important factors in
affecting the learner's self-identity formulation, will be gradually resolved under his/her subsequent knowledge re-organization.
From the literature review, the advantages of cooperative learning environment can be summed up as follows: 1. Improving
learners' social relationship, 2. Stimulating peer interaction, 3. Increasing confidence and self-esteem, and 4. Enhancing
learning performance.
2.2 SELF-D IRECTED L EARNING E NVIRONMENT
Although theories of social learning have gained more and more emphasis in educational psychology, self-directed learning
theory does play a valuable role in explaining learning process. It is difficult to explain human beings learning process merely
by self-directed learning theories or by social-learning theories alone. Brown and Reeve (1987) and Gelman and Brown
(1985b) suggested that a coordination of the two extremes, self-directed and social learning, comes somewhat nearer the truth
Self-directed learning environment is defined as an user-controlled independent learning environment. Under such
environment, learning performance is subject to the extent to which a learner can direct his/her own learning process
independently (Shyu & Brown 1992). Gelman and Brown (1985a,b) pointed out that self-directed learning is guided by systems
of internal structure, principles, or constraints that seek support in the environment for their growth and development. They
also indicated that human beings come equipped with a tendency to navigate the world by systematically monitoring the results
of their own active experimentation with the surroundings. Developmental psychologists support that learning is happened by
self-driven motives to explore the outside uncertainty and results in knowledge extension.
Studies have suggested that by providing students self-directed learning environment, learners can better learn how to learn
(Merrill 1975). Lepper (1985) indicated that in self-directed learning environment, individuals feel the learning activity has
greater personal meaning and intrinsic interests. In the self-directed CAL environment, learners are given control to decide
their own learning pace, sequencing, and difficulty levels. In Papert's study with LOGO (1980), it was found that increasing
control enhances learners' feelings of self-efficacy.
2.3. COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)
The effects of computer assisted language learning (CALL) were often contrasted to that of traditional classroom learning.
A literature review on comparing the learning performance in CALL with that in classroom lecture was summarized by Lin
(1992) and found that in overall, CALL obtained better learning performance.
2.4 COOPERATIVE CALL ENVIRONMENT
In the cooperative CALL context, Okamoto (1994) analyzed the interaction among learners in a group-type learning
situation, and emphasized the importance of interaction such as discussion, collaboration, and competition between learners.
He insisted that such interaction promote efficiency in their understanding and confirmation. From literature review, it is
generally acknowledged that cooperative task based learning is an appropriate paradigm for foreign language teaching.
Foubister et al. (1996) found members in group setting share a variety of thinking roles and enhance communication skills.
Traditional CALL environment is self-directed which may constrain learners' social interaction with peers and teachers and
thereby result in a poor social relationship. As to the impacts of distance cooperative CAL learning environment, Alavi (1994)
found that students in such group obtained significantly higher performance and better experience.
2.5 RESEARCH GOALS
In the present study, an experiment was conducted to explore possible learning differences between face-to-face cooperative
CALL environment and distance cooperative CALL environment. The self-directed CALL environment and the traditional
classroom lecture learning environment were employed as the control groups. The target system is an English spelling lesson
for seventh grade pupils.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A 10-day experiment with 8-session learning units was conducted for data collection. The material covered in the learning
unit is English words spelling task. 100 of seventh graders were randomly chosen from a public junior high school at a northern
city in Taiwan, ROC. An English vocabulary spelling pretest was administered to screen out the students with top and bottom
scores. After the pretest, 64 students were chosen to participate the study and were then randomly assigned to four groups..
3.1 PROCEDURE
The classroom lecture group took a 30-minute instruction from an English teacher in the morning. Whereas the three CALL
groups took the same instruction from CALL system in the afternoon. The different time allocation, which may contribute to
possible treatment effects, is due to the limited availability of the computer room. 16 subjects in the two cooperative CALL
groups were randomly assigned to form 8 pairs. Individuals in the pairs within the two cooperative CALL groups would daily
switch roles as the peer-tutor and the learner.
3.2 RESEARCH VARIABLES
Three types of research variable: independent, dependent, and control, variables were examined. The independent variable
was learning environment, including traditional classroom lectures, self-directed CALL, face-to-face cooperative CALL, and
distance cooperative CALL. Two dependent variables included in the present study were learning performance and learning
attitude. Learning performance was measured by an achievement test. Three dimensions of learning attitude, i.e., interpersonal
relationships, learning interests, and confidence, were included in a self-developed learning attitude scale. Two control
variables were the learner's prior English spelling achievement and the learner's ability. The former was controlled out by a
pretest and the latter was controlled by random sampling.
3.3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The present study is designed to test the superiority of cooperative CAL environment in language learning. The hypotheses
to be examined in the present study include:
1. H
o
: There is no difference in learning performance and attitude among four learning environments.
2. H
o
: There is no difference in learning performance and attitude between three CALL groups and traditional classroom
lecture learning group.
3. H
o
: There is no difference in learning performance and attitude between two cooperative CALL group and self-directed
CALL group.
4. H
o
: There is no difference in learning performance and attitude between distance cooperative CALL group and face-to-face
cooperative CALL group.
3.5 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Three types of research instrument, including a target system, an attitude scale, and an achievement test, were used in the
present study. The target system was developed in Microsoft Windows environment using Visual Basic tools. The target system
included two versions: single-user and real time multi-user versions. The former version was for face-to-face cooperative and
self-directed CALL environments, and the latter was for distance cooperative CALL environment.
The self-developed attitude scale, synthesized from previous studies (Lin, 1992; Yang, 1989; Konttinen, 1985; Laine, 1977;
Gardner & Lambert, 1972), contained 24 questions in the 3 dimensions: interpersonal relations, learning interests, and self-
confidence. The attitude scale obtained a moderate split-half reliability coefficient of 0.62 by using Sperman-Brown formula.
The achievement test contained all 36 words taught in the experiment. Group interviews were conducted for data collect ion
about subjects' experiences in using CALL systems. Subjects were asked to rate on the system's features as well its usefulness.
4. STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
One-way ANOVA technique and Sheffe's a posteriori test were employed to analyze data. It was found that there existed
significant differences in learning performance among four groups. Sheffe's a posteriori test was employed to test all possible
contrasts among the means. It was found that subjects in classroom lecture learning environment outperformed the rest. In
addition, the results indicated that there existed significant performance differences among specific groups, namely, classroom
lecture, distance cooperative CALL, and face-to-face cooperative CALL learning groups.
Source DF Sum of Squares Mean of Squares F Value P
Model 3 403.43 134.48 6.01 0.0012
Error 60 1320.31 22.39
Total 63 1723.75
Note: * represents a significance at .01 level.
Table 2. ANOVA Table of Different Learning Environments
Classroom
Lecture
Distance
Cooperative CALL
Face-to-Face
Cooperative CALL
Classroom Lecture
16
Distance Cooperative
CALL
6.44
16 6.75*
Face-to-Face
Cooperative CALL
8.00
16 5.19* -1.56
Self-Directed CALL 8.56
16 4.63 -2.12 -0.56
Note: * represents a significance at .05 level.
Table 3. Means, Standard Deviation, and Sheffe's a Posteriori Test
Regarding to the attitudinal differences in three dimensions: interpersonal relations, learning interests, and confidence, it
was found no significant group differences existed. Nevertheless, group interview results showed subjects in two cooperative
CALL groups expressed highly positive experiences in helping others. A sense of achievement and learning interests were
proliferated in those groups during the experiment. Regarding to the target system evaluation, subjects commented the system
as "vivid, interesting, well-represented, and user-friendly". They described the learning process is full of happiness and fun.
4.3 DISCUSSIONS
The most astonishing finding in this study is the significant performance differences that favor classroom lecture learning
environment. The other three CALL environments did not generate as good performance as classroom lecture learning
environment did. Two similar results were found in literature. Firstly, the Plait Report conducted in North Ireland (Hammond,
1994) was to examine if students would do better in homework with the help of a notebook computer at home. After one year's
experiment, the results indicated that no significant better performance was found.
Secondly, the ImpacT Report (Hammond 1994) , a longitudinal study conducted in England, indicated two important
findings in explaining the insignificant outcomes in the cooperative group. First, the degree that learners actually cooperate was
a critical factor of learner's performance. Second, there may exist a threshold for cooperative learning to be effective. In other
words, learning outcome needs to be accumulated to pass over a "threshold" to be significant.
After a close examination on the research design and experiment procedure, three plausible explanations to the study
results are drawn.
1. Although total learning time was the same across groups, the time allocated to active learning varied. Students in
three CALL groups needed to spend sometime in adjusting to the CALL environment. The actual learning time for
CALL groups would be less than that in the classroom lecture group and that might result in inferior performance
in the CALL groups.
2. Although the quality of spelling lesson was manipulated to be identical across groups, the active learning time in
doing spelling exercise varied. Subjects in the classroom lecture and self-directed CALL groups did the spelling
exercise all by themselves, which would take a longer active learning time. Whereas in the two cooperative groups,
due to the daily peer-tutor vs learner role change, subjects only spelled half of the words in the spelling exercise on
average. This might significantly reduce the active learning time. The two reasons may well explain why the
classroom lecture group and the self-directed CALL group obtained the highest two mean achievement scores.
3. Finally, the actual cooperation level may help explaining the performance differences in two cooperative CALL
groups. In the face-to-face cooperative CALL group, subjects seated next to each other and therefore could
cooperative more effectively. In the distance cooperative CALL group, subjects helped each other via microphone
communication, which is more time-consuming. When exposed in a time constraint situation, the above different
patterns may contribute to the quality of cooperation and result in inferior performance in the distance cooperative
CALL group. The fact that distance cooperative CALL group obtained the lowest achievement scores was not
surprising.
5. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION
Researches of the learning environment effects on learning performance and on motivation have been a lot, the results are
not consistent - some are even contradictory. How to choose representative learning models with significant factors is still a big
challenge. This study outlines a research in examining the possible environmental effects on learning performance and on
learning attitude. Research results suggest significant performance differences exist among different learning environments.
Plausible explanations to the differences include: 1. There may exist a threshold for accumulated learning performance to be
significant. The 8-day learning task may not be long enough to achieve the threshold. 2. The amount of various active learning
time may contribute to learning performance. 3. The actual cooperation level may vary.Other plausible explanation may be that
the cognitive complexity of the English word spelling task is not suited for cooperative learning.
In order to acquire a more complete picture on the effects of learning environment on learners, it is suggested to revise the
system based on the subjects' comments and replicate the study with a larger sample. It is also suggested that another learning
task with higher level of cognitive complexity be employed. In addition, a complete instruction should be given to the CALL
groups before the study to ensure subjects acquire the computer skills prerequisites.
By building up such a distance social learning environment with multimedia support, it is the researcher's hope to provide a
prototype for futuristic learning environment and bring impacts on education revolution in the coming centuries.
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Designing a Course Web-Site to Supplement the Teaching of Part-Time
Engineering Mathematics Course in Singapore Polytechnic:
Introduction to Calculus (A prototype)
[1]
Chao Yunn Chyi
Maths/Science Department
Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
(Chaoyc@sp.edu.sg)
1. Introduction
A problem one encounters when teaching the part-time Engineering math courses in Singapore
Polytechnic (SP) is the lack of resources available for the part-time (PT) students outside of classes. The typical
PT student is a person who works full-time and attends classes at night part time. In this scenario, there is
typically a continuous 3-hour lecture, once per week. PT students are expected to master the material as it is
being presented, complete homework based on those topics, and quite often be ready to demonstrate their
knowledge by completing a quiz or turning in homework at the next meeting. Variability in ability among the
students and the short meeting time make it hard for the instructor to meet the needs of individual students and
therefore the ones who need the most help do not get adequate attention. This lack of individual attention often
leads to PT students having difficulty with the homework exercises. In the case of Calculus, help from friends is
rare due to the nature of the subject. And to travel to the campus to seek the instructor would make sense only if
the instructor is a full-time employee, and besides, PT students may not have the time to find the instructor outside
of class. These difficulties are tackled by designing a web-site to supplement the first semester Calculus course.
We called it the ITC (Introduction to Calculus) web-site.
2. The ITC web-site (A prototype) http://www.sp.edu.sg/department/ms/Math/ITC/index.html
The site aims at helping the PT students to obtain a more thorough understanding of the topics, and
allows more advanced students to go in-depth and explore, making use of the vast resources from the Internet.
Students and the instructor may use the discussion corner in ITC to conduct discussion asynchronously and work
collaboratively. The site discusses the topics of Calculus on a weekly basis, following the syllabus of Calculus I.
In the prototype presented here, a single topic on "Newton's Method - an application of derivatives" is selected.
The ITC web-site is presently on trial to a class of PT Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering students taking
the Engineering Mathematics 2 (EM2) module in Singapore Polytechnic.
2. The Design
The ITC web-site was designed to allow self-paced learning and to tap the affordances of networks and
webs, i.e. increase access to information; to communication; and to collaboration (Brackett, 1998). Eight
components: Lecture Notes, Guided practice, On-line quiz, Homework, Beyond the Basics, Discussion Corner,
Tools and FAQ were included in the web-site to achieve the objectives.
(1) Lecture Notes--This component gives a summary of the face-to-face lecture on the topic of the week. Students
could check in on this page to revise their own notes at their own pace. In particular, interactive examples (Java
applets) are incorporated to allow the learners to observe the graphical representations of Newton's Method with
different inputs.
(2) Guided Practice--This is a place where students can go over more examples in detail. This component
contains samples of questions with guided solutions in a step by step manner. The students will have the option to
supply the "next step" or ask for further hints or solutions.
[1]
This project was first developed to fulfill the course requirement of T525-Designing Educational Experiences for Networks
and Webs (Prof. George Brackett) at Harvard University. It was a joint project with my friends Maria Coulson and Robin
Losey. The URL of the web-site: http://www.sp.edu.sg/department/ms/Math/ITC/index.html
(3) On-line Quiz--This component will be helpful for self-assessment. The quiz contains close-ended questions
that can be used to gauge one's understanding of the necessary skills and concepts of the topic.
(4) Homework--This component provides the necessary information and tools for working on the assignments.
(5) Beyond the Basics--For the more advanced students, this component contains links to other relevant web pages
and information that encourage exploration beyond the minimum.
(6) Discussion Corner--This area takes the form of a threaded discussion. This is the place where the students can
have asynchronous discussions and work collaboratively with their peers and the instructor. Students who have
interesting questions or problems will be able to post them to the discussion corner. Other students, as well as the
instructor, will join in the discussions by providing answers, or hints to these questions.
(7) Tools--This component contains a collection of Java applets that are helpful in understanding and exploring
the topic. These Java applets provide an opportunity to give a richer interaction with the material in terms of
graphical exploration and calculations.
(8) FAQ--Frequently Asked Questions from each topic will be included under the topic of the week. This
component focuses on students' questions rather than the instructor's ideas.
3. Pedagogical Approach
In this setting, the web-site, together with the email facility are integrated with the regular class meeting,
class textbook, and lecture notes. The site is used as another channel for students to seek feedback and help from
the instructor and peers, to understand and explore more about the topics. The ultimate aim is to achieve teaching
(as well as learning) for understanding. (Perkins, 1992)
Basically, the ITC site is a second chance for a student who missed or needed to review the lesson(s) to
acquire the clear information of the topic. The Lecture Notes of the lesson of the week, in this case, Newton's
Method, not only teaches the learners the technique of applying the method, but also emphasizes how and when to
use the method, in a concise manner. For students who need extra guidance, the step by step Guided Practice will
equip the users with the necessary skills and concepts. The understanding of the concepts will be further enhanced
at the Discussion Corner and the FAQ , where the doubts and misconceptions will be discussed and clarified. The
Java applets examples and tools will also help to make understanding the concept easier, both during the lecture
and self-revision.
From our experience as teachers, we know that if one can correctly explain a concept, she truly
understands the concept. Thoughtful practices are enhanced by the assignments that focussed on assessing
students' understanding through open-ended questions (…/ITC/assign/index.html) . Students are also encouraged
to pose and answer questions, helping each other in the Discussion Corner (where their grades will be boosted by
taking part actively in the discussions). In this way, the instructor, as well as the members of the class, will be the
key components in providing informative feedback to each other.
On the whole, the existence of the web-site provides motivation. Older, re-entry students in general are
back in school to achieve a specific goal: a diploma. They are (for the most part) extremely motivated to do well.
Any opportunity for extra help and support will be motivating. Even if the student is not in a position to need
extra help with the requirements, he will receive motivation in the extended opportunities in Beyond the Basics .
Computer technology and the web make it possible to present graphs, figures, equations and text in an eye-
catching appearing and meaningful manner. This might be enough to hook even the most nonchalant student.
4. Discussion
Some difficulties encountered during the trial run are: (1) Only half of the class (16 out of 31) have the
access to the WWW out of the campus, and not many students are posting and answering questions at the
Discussion Corner. It is thought that the situation could be improved by granting some financial aids in helping
the students to gain access to the WWW. (2) Housing the web-site in the Polytechnic's Internet server is
inconvenient, not only in uploading files, but also in posting comments/questions at the ITC site. It is
recommended that we should set up our own department's server to alleviate some of these problems.
References:
Perkins, D. (1992). Smart Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for Every Child . New York: The Free Press.
Perkins, D. et al (1995). Software Goes to School: Teaching for Understanding with New Technologies . New
York: Oxford University Press.
Brackett, G (1998). T525 course web-site. [Online: web]. Cited 22 Aug. 1998. URL:
http://hgseclass.harvard.edu/t525/index.html
International Collaborative Learning – The Facilitation Process
A.G. (Tony) Clear
Academic Leader, Computing - Systems & Technology
Auckland Institute of Technology
New Zealand.
Tony.Clear@ait.ac.nz
Abstract: International collaborative learning is becoming more viable through a variety of Internet enabled software products. Group
Support Systems appear to offer promise. But how to facilitate the teaching and learning process in electronic environments is not well
understood. If education is to involve an interactive process of collaborative inquiry and dialogue between remote groups of learners, then
how to design meaningful learning experiences presents challenges in logistics, technology support, software design, and pedagogy. To better
model the facilitation process in such environments, a theoretical framework based upon an extension of Adaptive Structuration Theory is
suggested. This framework is then related to experiences with custom application software development using Lotus Notes Domino™,
internal trials and a limited scale collaborative learning exercise between students at Auckland Institute of Technology and Uppsala
University. The paper concludes with some recommendations for redesign of the application, suggests revisions to the collaborative process
based upon the framework above and discusses further extensions to the trials
Introduction
Numerous teaching and learning initiatives, frequently cited in conferences such as this, now include an Internet dimension. Different products such as
the common "chat", "email", and "newsgroups", are being used to support collaborative learning (Siviter, Petre & Klein, 1997). In the business
environment, organisations seeking to link disparate global teams are increasingly using groupware products such as Lotus Notes (Lloyd &
Whitehead 1996), and this form of product appears to have much to offer to support collaborative learning processes (Galpin & Birchall 1996). In this
paper when talking of collaborative learning , the term is being used in the sense suggested by Siviter, Petre & Klein, 1997. They place it in the
context of "groupwork", broken down into three interrelated components of "communication, collaboration and coordination". These activities in turn
may be supported by groupware – a term "adopted to describe systems that support groupwork" (Siviter, Petre & Klein, 1997). "Groupware
technologies provide electronic networks that support communication, collaboration and coordination through facilities such as information exchange,
shared repositories, discussion forums and messaging. Such technologies are typically designed with an open architecture that is adaptable by end
users allowing them to customize existing features and create new applications". (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997) The Lotus Notes Domino™
application discussed in this paper can be categorised as an example of an open ended customizable groupware product, and of different time, different
place groupware.
Group Support Systems (GSS) is an alternative term for groupware. Previously termed Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS), which covered
particularly that class of systems known as electronic meeting systems, the GDSS research generated the Adaptive Structuration Theory model
(DeSanctis & Poole, 1994) discussed in this paper. Group Support Systems has been suggested as a generic term for the field (Nunamaker et al.,
1989), and defined by Whitworth (1997) as:
"GSS: any system which supports a group interaction by becoming an integral part of that interaction"
In this paper the terms GSS and groupware will be used somewhat interchangeably.
Facilitation and Group Support Systems
The Group Support Systems (GSS) field has turned its focus from more technocentric aspects, to broader study of how effective the technology is in
use. Dennis and Gallupe (1993) have identified five stages of GSS research, which evidence this trend. Stage four covered field studies of the
organisational impact of GSS, and stage five an in depth focus on specific aspects - one of which is the role of the facilitator . A further stage seems
to be evolving, which focuses on organizational issues associated with the mutual influence of technology and social processes. This stage
represents an extension from stage four's focus on the more deterministic organizational impact of GDSS. A research approach based upon the study
of these interaction effects seems particularly suited to investigating the role of the facilitator in conjunction with GSS.
It is apparent for instance, that the complexities of GSS use in the Electronic Meeting Support context, cannot sensibly be understood without inquiry
into the interaction effects between dimensions of the group and the group process, the skills of the facilitator and the technology. Likewise in
asynchronous groupware contexts an analysis of interaction effects may prove a productive approach to understanding the complexities of groupwork
in these distributed electronic environments. It has been suggested that "organizations need the experience of using groupware technologies in
particular ways and in particular contexts to better understand how they may be most useful in practice". (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997)
This paper discusses a general framework for analysing technology facilitation roles. It is shown how this model might be applied to the facilitator
role and provide a basis for an "interactionist" model for GSS's, which may be extended to improve our understanding of the processes involved in
electronic collaborative learning.
Structuring Processes and Information Technology
Orlikowski and several colleagues have been following an interactionist line of research into Information Technology for some time. Their model of
technology is structurationist in approach, based upon the work of Giddens (1984) and the concept of technology as an "occasion for
structuring"(Barley, 1986). Initial work identified the reflexive nature of Information Technology (IT) in which IT both shapes and is shaped by the
actions of users and the organisational context (Orlikowski, 1992). Subsequently the concepts of metastructuring and technology –use mediation
(Orlikowski et al., 1995) are introduced as further sources of structure. These two key terms of the Orlikowski model are defined as:
1) Metastructuring While "The research on technology structuring...tends to focus primarily on the activities of users who shape their technology
as they use it in particular contexts", [there are] "another set of activities that, although carried out by users, are not activities of use. Rather
they involve the shaping of other users activities of use, a process we designate as Metastructuring …The notion of metastructuring allows us to
see that interventions in users' use of technology occur frequently over time, in a variety of ways, and are often very influential".(Orlikowski et
al., 1995)
2) Technology-use mediation Orlikowski et al. refer to "a particular type of metastructuring , technology-use mediation, and find that it
structures users' use of technology by influencing their interpretations and interactions, by changing the institutional context of use and by
modifying the technology itself. Because technology-use mediation is a sanctioned, explicit, deliberate and ongoing set of activities, we argue
that it is a particularly powerful mechanism in the context of dynamic organisations, enabling rapid and customised adaptations of the
technology and its use to changes in circumstances, organizational form and work practices".(Orlikowski et al., 1995)
In their study of the use of a computer conferencing system in a Japanese R&D project group (Orlikowski et al., 1995), identified four different types
of mediating activities that the network administration group members performed. These were: 1) establishment : established role, determined and
built consensus around use of the communication technology, established guidelines etc. for its use; 2) reinforcement : training, monitoring, and
follow-up with members and the group to reinforce the established guidelines; 3) adjustment : on the basis of feedback obtained from members,
adjusted the definitions and usage rules for specific newsgroups and occasionally added new newsgroups on request; 4) episodic change : twice
during the project, NAGA initiated major changes to the news system as a whole.
Structuring and Facilitation Processes
"Facilitation is a dynamic process that involves managing relationships between people, tasks and technology, as well as structuring tasks
and contributing to the effective accomplishment of the meeting's outcome"(Bostrom et al. 1993). It is argued here that both metastructuring
and technology-use mediation are closely allied to the concept of facilitation in GSS environments, whether in synchronous or asynchronous modes.
The Structure of a "Meeting"
Bostrom et al. (1993) define a meeting as "a goal- or outcome-directed interaction between two or more people (teams, groups) that can take place in
any of four environments (same time/same place, same time/different place, different time/same place, different time / different place)...Most GSS
facilitation research has focused on face-to-face environments (same time/same place)". In this paper by contrast, the collaborative learning trials
have been designed to operate as an extended meeting , in the different time, different place environment.
Bostrom et al. (1993) further note that "meetings rarely die, they just keep rolling along in a cycle of premeeting, meeting and postmeeting
activities...The actual meeting is but one phase of a three-phase cycle of activities that constitute a meeting". This fits with the shift from the earlier
decisionist view of GDSS towards more of a concept of Group Support Systems, where the group decision-making processes are more ones of
managing "issue streams"(Langley, Mintzberg et al., 1995), a model better suited to asynchronous than synchronous GSS. Elaborating upon
Bostrom's structure, Ackermann (1996) defines the concept of a "meeting" as broken into several stages:
• the pre-meeting stage;
• the meeting itself with three substages
• introductory,
• exploration and development,
• closure
• the post-meeting stage.
Electronic Collaborative learning trial
A collaborative electronic learning trial is now briefly described to enable a concrete exercise to be related to the concepts being developed in this
paper. Some pilot trials had been conducted intra-institution at Auckland Institute of Technology with an experimental generic collaborative
database developed using Lotus Notes Domino (Clear, 1998). Subsequently a cross institution collaborative trial had been arranged. This trial
involved a Computer Science class at Uppsala University, collaborating with a class of Business students at Auckland Institute of Technology. The
Uppsala group consisted of approximately 80 students and the New Zealand group approximately 20. Both groups were to collaborate on a common
task involving a role play. The Auckland group were to be business analysts consulting to a local client, while the Uppsala group were a group of
software game developers, with whom the Auckland consultants had to liaise. The purpose of the exercise was to jointly develop a feasibility study for
a computer game to support the client's need for a software product. The software product was to help young pharmacy assistants become more
informed about the client's nailcare product range. By better diagnosis of customers' problems, greater sales of products and reduced instances of
misdiagnosis and nail damage were expected to result. The project scenario thus represented an opportunity for problem based learning, (Boud, 1985)
based upon a live business case.
The trial took place over a 3-week period between September 22
nd
and October 22
nd
1998. By the end of the exercise many of the students had made
some progress in mastering the system, which had significant usability problems. The variety of different approaches and features used indicated a
degree of ingenuity. Each combined group had come up with at least one design concept for a game, showing they had thought about the problem,
variously using the database or e-mail alone to express it with.
In the definition of Bostrom et al (1993) above, this trial could be deemed a meeting.
Facilitation frameworks
Bostrom et al. (1993) propose a framework for understanding and investigating facilitation in GSS environments. " A given source of facilitation
(external facilitator, leader, member, GSS) provides structures (e.g. agenda, procedures, GSS tools) and/or support (e.g. the facilitator administers a
procedure, or deals with a disruptive participant) to a group in order to positively influence how the group accomplishes its outcomes. Structures
provide an overall frame or context to activate individuals or groups to behave in a particular way. On the other hand support activities are used
primarily to maintain and promote these structures, encourage effective task and relational behaviors, and deal with disruptive influences in the
meeting. A facilitator, by his or her actions, attempts to influence three general targets: meeting process , relationships , and task outcomes. This
facilitation framework may support several different levels of analysis - the individual, subgroup or entire group.
Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) has been suggested, as a theoretical perspective which "provides a general framework for investigations" of the
facilitation process. "From an AST perspective, the role of facilitation is to select and present beneficial structures to groups in a manner that
encourages their faithful appropriation. A key construct within AST is appropriation. Appropriation is the process by which participants invoke or
enact available structures (e.g. GSS, agenda, etc.) and thereby give meaning to them...AST posits that the success of an appropriation is determined
by three dimensions, the faithfulness (in respect to the structure's design principles) of the appropriation, the group's attitudes towards the structures,
and the group's level of consensus (i.e. agreement on how structures should be used). As we discussed earlier, a facilitator affects all three of these
modes through support activities: faithfulness through promotion and maintenance of structure; attitudes through activities that develop positive
affect; and consensus through monitoring the group's reactions and making appropriate adjustments." (Bostrom et al., 1993)
The AST model (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994) developed largely from a view of technology "as an occasion for structuring"(Barley, 1986), which
reflects the interactions between the technology, the institutional features of the organization and the actions of individuals. The extensions to this
brought through the concepts of metastructuring and the notion of technology-use mediation offer the opportunity to augment the AST model in a
manner which should more directly and discretely support investigation of the facilitation process.
Before developing the AST model to accommodate these dimensions, some threads from this paper will be tied together. The facilitator role is clearly
difficult to model in any simple manner, and the different frameworks contrasted so far, help to further confuse the picture. Which dimensions relate
to one another, and how should they be depicted? The classic GSS design constructs of "process support ", "process structure", "task support, and
"task structure" (Nunamaker et al., 1993), who define them as follows, provide a useful starting point:
• "Process Support - refers to the communication infrastructure (media, channels, and devices, electronic or otherwise) that facilitates
communication among members…such as an electronic communication channel or blackboard.
• Process Structure - refers to process techniques or rules that direct the pattern, timing or content of this communication…such as an agenda or
process methodology such as nominal Group Technique.
• Task Support - refers to the information and computation infrastructure for task-related activities…such as external databases and pop-up
calculators.
• Task Structure - refers to techniques, rules, or models for analyzing task related information to gain new insight…such as those within computer
models or Decision Support Systems (DSS)." (Nunamaker et al., 1993)
Domains and Mechanisms for GSS Facilitation
The table below attempts to link some aspects of the structuring and facilitation processes earlier described, to assess the role of the facilitator in the
context of the Uppsala – Auckland collaborative trial (Clear, 1999).
Domain Design Contingency Facilitation Means Facilitation Avenue
Technology Process Support GSS parallel communication
group memory
group and individual contributions identifiable
(as opposed to the usual anonymity in GSS)
Scanner, Photoshop , Word
Excel , text editors & GSS
media effects (photos, diagrams files etc. as well
as text)
email Individual or mail group messages, combined
with external/ internal facilitation and GSS use
External/ internal electronic
facilitation
Registration database, database forms and
views, fax (as a last resort)
Institutional and
Technology
Process Structure External/ internal facilitator,
telephone, fax, email and GSS (in
part)
Global process structuring
e.g. establish collaboration, determine client,
task & groups and advise, agree collaboration
window setting, remote trial coordinators,
project/group leaders
Internal process structuring
GSS e.g. project, task, document, section, discussion
threads, file attachments, on-line help,
questionnaires, communication & use of naming
standards
Institutional and
Technology
Task Structure External/ internal facilitator and
GSS in Combination
use of GSS features such as project, document,
and discussion thread hierarchies, views,
hyperlinks and file attach/detach features plus
remote trial coordinators, & project/group
leaders
Technology and
institutional
Task Support GSS
External facilitator & email
Access to repository of std templates, group
data, links with other applications e.g. Word or
Excel. Specialised views and Database
hierarchies. Database or email advice to groups
and individuals
Table 1 Domains and Mechanisms for GSS facilitation
While the table shows some meaningful information, it does not provide a clear framework for understanding the facilitator role. For instance, the
domain of individual's actions , while implicit in each of the rows, is omitted, as is the area of relationships and specific support activities.
Temporal Analysis of Mediating Activities and Relationships with GSS Facilitation
In this next analysis a time dimension is included, and the four mediation activities of Orlikowski et al. (1995) are used to structure the comparison.
Illustrative examples are again drawn from the collaborative trial. (Clear, 1999)
Mediating
Activity
Meeting Phase Design
Contingency
Facilitator Actions Example
Establishment Pre-Meeting Process Support Set up physical
parameters and features
of the technology
Confirm resources (system capacity, technical support etc.)
Organise creation of collaboration database and registration
database for participants
Pre-Meeting &
Meeting -
introductory
Process
Structure
(global)
Modify institutional
properties of the
organization to facilitate
technology assimilation
Establish collaboration parameters (scope, purpose, content,
participants & timing with partnering institution's facilitator)
Confirm suitability of task
Determine assessment regime
Communicate intentions and obtain participants' consent
Ensure a match is made between the problem task, and the
participants & facilitator's skill levels
Determine and communicate group numbers and membership
Pre-Meeting &
Meeting -
introductory
Articulate the cognitive
and behavioral routines
through which the
technology may be
appropriated by users
Provide a clearly defined task or set of objectives and
corresponding agenda
Create and communicate an overview of the issue/problem (via
facilitator at each site and posting instructions in database
Advise process to register users
Clarify roles and expectations
Advise of help or other tutoring features available, such as guides,
sample templates, naming standards etc.
Reinforcement Meeting -
exploration and
development
Meeting - closure
Process Support maintain the operational
fidelity of the technology
Check registration process, monitor entries, resolve access
problems (forgotten passwords etc.).
Check for activity level of participants, and resolve bugs,
problems
Process
Structure
help users adopt and use
appropriate cognitive and
behavioral routines to use
the technology
The GSS itself as facilitator (shaping of other user's activities of
use) - enabling participants to contribute freely
Providing the participants with some form of control
Facilitator promotes use of the GSS system
Facilitator communicates and educates re. use of GSS
Adjustment Meeting -
exploration and
development
Meeting - closure
Post meeting
Process Support Adjust technical features
of the technology to
promote use
If facilitator is a developer, may fine tune views, forms etc. to
enhance usability
Facilitator may advise technical support staff of problems needing
attention (e.g. "out of file space" errors etc.)
Meeting -
exploration and
development
Meeting - closure
Post meeting
Process
Structure
(internal)
Task Support
Task Structure
Alter usage rules and
procedures to facilitate
the use of the technology
Facilitator may decide to deviate from plan of action and use
different facilities of the GSS to support the meeting activity (e.g.
attached files vs. document section entries)
May advise new naming or other standards to enhance use
May create new features e.g. on-line questionnaire for evaluations
Episodic
Change
Post meeting Process Support Redesign the technical
functions and features of
the technology
Facilitator as researcher may decide to recommend changes to
clumsy or ineffective aspects of technology (e.g. upgrade views,
redesign hierarchies that are too deep, improve navigation etc.
Facilitator may recommend extensions or enhancements to GSS
e.g. automatic links between registration and collaboration
Databases to share email addresses within and between groups, or
use of agents to link mail features more tightly with the GSS
Post meeting Process
Structure
Modify institutional
properties of the
organization to facilitate
change in technology use
Determine a general ethical approval process for collaborations
Set policy regarding summative vs. formative assessment in trials
Streamline the process of establishing further collaborations, or
extending the model to other courses
Post meeting Process
Structure
Redefine cognitive and
behavioral routines to
facilitate change in users
appropriation of the
technology
Facilitator may decide to use different features of the technology
for next collaboration (e.g. a ranking feature may be used to judge
the merits of the design proposals submitted)
Table 2 Temporal Analysis of Mediating Activities and Relationships with GSS Facilitation
From table 2 it can be seen that technology-use mediation does add to our understanding of the facilitation process, and can be incorporated into
existing perspectives on the field of GSS and group facilitation.
The Extended AST Model - Including GSS Facilitation
Returning to the AST model, the above frameworks have suggested the value of technology-use mediation , but are relatively static as a base for
further analysis. Given the inherently dynamic nature of the facilitation process, a model capable of reflecting that is required. The base AST
constructs have been built upon to incorporate the technology-use mediation dimension. This now gives us an Extended AST Model, which
includes technology-use mediation as a further source and form of structure within the model. At this stage the concept is generic, and could include
other mediation roles such as systems administrators or designers, but the term technology-use mediator should be read to mean facilitator for the
purposes of this paper.
P5
Decision Processes
* idea generation
* participation
* conflict management
* influence behaviour
* task management
Appropriation of Structures
* Appropriation moves
* faithfulness of appropriation
* instrumental uses
* persistent attitudes
toward appropriation
Group's Internal System
* Styles of interacting
* knowledge and experience
with structures
* perceptions of other's knowledge
* agreement on appropriation
P2
P6
P3
P4
Decision outcomes
* efficiency
* quality
* consensus
* commitment
P7
P1
Social Interaction
Other Sources of Structure
* task
* organization environment
* technology-use mediator
(establishment &
reinforcement)
Structure of Advanced
Information Technology
* structural features
restrictiveness
level of sophistication
comprehensiveness
* spirit
decision process
leadership
efficiency
conflict management
atmosphere
New Social Structure
* rules
* resources
* technology-use
mediator (episodic)
Emergent Sources of Structure
* AIT outputs
* task outputs
* organization environment outputs
* Technology-use mediator
(adjustment)
Figure 1 Summary of Major Constructs and Propositions of Extended AST Model [based upon figure 1 ex (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994)]
The modified constructs are highlighted in the redrawn model (bold italics). Basically the three constructs dealing with sources and forms of structure
have been augmented;
• Other Sources of Structure
• has had the technology-use mediator (facilitator) added, with the assumption that much of this intervention would occur during
either the establishment or reinforcement modes of activity as shown in table 2 above
• Emergent Sources of Structure
• has had the technology-use mediator (facilitator) added, with the assumption that much of this intervention would occur during the
adjustment mode of activity from table 2
• New Social Structure
• has had the technology-use mediator (facilitator) added, with the assumption that much of this intervention would occur during the
episodic mode of activity from table 2
Conclusions
The complexities of developing new forms of collaborative electronic pedagogy defy simple analysis. The above model is an extension of a model
developed to support research in the GSS field. It may be criticised for assuming that meetings result in decision outcomes. Nonetheless it allows for
"meetings" to be broadly defined, and some aspects of the "outcomes" construct do apply to educational activities of this nature. Its strength lies in its
ability to encompass the several dimensions at play in such learning environments.
For instance in the Auckland-Uppsala trial several issues required attention. The collaborative task needed reconsideration, its scope was too
ambitious in the time available and the degree of group interactivity demanded was too low. The process of establishing and assigning groups needs
greater structure, probably through extra workflow features of the GSS. The organising elements and views of the database need simplification, and
structures for reinforcing naming standards need to be more inbuilt than open to group selection. If anything the degree of genericity needs to be
reduced and the application designed to more specifically suit the educational group collaborative context. The question of appropriation is an
interesting one, given that half the groups were not faithful to the spirit of the groupware application, by choosing to use the more individualistic
technology option of email. The extended AST model enables such issues to be discretely analysed in depth, but within a framework which does not
omit the complex interaction effects.
Initial uses of groupware for collaborative learning tend to occur at the intra-institution level (Siviter, Petre, Klein, 1997; Schrum 1997), but as inter-
institutional collaborations grow, it becomes important that we find ways to increase their chances of success, and develop means to research the
effectiveness of such learning practices. The author intends to continue a programme of international collaborative learning trials. This extended
AST model may be one means of better designing such trials, while considering all the relevant dimensions. It may also prove a useful means to
analyse the complex interactions of actors, institutional factors and technology in groupware supported collaborative learning contexts.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the NACCQ for a research grant to support this work, and the Auckland Institute of Technology for support through an
Innovative Teaching Award. Thanks are due also to students and colleagues.
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Learning in Safety and Comfort: Towards Managing On-Line Learning Transactions
by
Dianne L. Conrad (dianne.contrad@ualberta.ca)
and
Heather Kanuka (heather.kanuka@ualberta.ca)
Abstract: How can the teaching-learning process serve distance learners as well as possible? This paper presents a
framework for accommodating learners' transitions through the developmental stages associated with the introduction
of technologies in learning.
Introduction
Although in the last few years we have witnessed tremendous growth in increasing access to higher education learning opportunities, there are still many populations that are educationally
marginalized. Individuals in these areas experience situational barriers that prevent them from accessing higher education - most notably, geographic isolation, weather, course and program
scheduling, family commitments, employment and financial responsibilities. For the past 15 years, the University of Alberta's Faculty of Education has delivered a single-point outreach Bachelor
of Education in Adult Education program to meet this need through a combination of print, on-site delivery, and audio-conferencing.
As the demand for undergraduate and graduate programs in adult education for geographically dispersed learners continued to rise, the Department of Educational Policy Studies at the University
of Alberta was granted approval to expand the Bachelor of Education (Adult Education specialty) and the Masters of Education in Adult and Higher Education to a multi-point delivery system.
Extending the university's reach to a wider geographic audience required intelligent choices of available technological software and hardware. As McCullough & McCullough (1994) so aptly
stated: "Finding a suitable match between the capabilities of the technology and the needs of learners is the key challenge" (p. 29). A decision was made to use a combination of web-based
instruction, video or audio conferencing, and computer conferencing for a multi-point delivery program.
While the integration of technologies to the outreach program supported the activities that traditional, on-campus classrooms supported, it was not without its own problems, the most notable of
which was helping learners achieve a high level of comfort with the Internet as a learning environment. As we began delivering programs using the mixed technologies, among the many
problems that became apparent was learner resistance to using the Internet in a way that constructively supported a community of learners.
This paper will examine distance learning experiences in terms of learners' learning styles, the strategies they developed to accommodate their learning tendencies, their motivation levels, and
their communication processes.
Learner Resistance: Shock, Surrender, and Success
As institutions of higher education explore the use of technologies while implementing new distance learning programs, they find that the learning curve for adults is a steep and slippery slope.
Although there has been enormous advancement in making Internet software user-friendly, research conducted on the use of technologies in the teaching-learning process reveals that using the
Internet as a learning environment continues to trouble more adult learners, and a recent poll indicates that the Internet ranks one of the least favorite ways to learn (Daniel, 1996). And while
"online education offers a means to educators in assisting people in overcoming situational barriers... the very technology that has allowed us to overcome those situational barriers may form the
basis of a dispositional barrier, namely computer anxiety" (Lauzon, 1991).
Woods (1994) observes that students forced to take major responsibility for their own learning experience some or all of the steps that psychologists associate with trauma and grief: shock,
denial, strong emotion, resistance and withdrawal, surrender and acceptance, struggle and exploration, return of confidence, integration and success. Not surprisingly, traditional students using
computer technologies experience the same pattern that Woods describes in his article, "Traditional students in a nontraditional class: A painful odyssey." Using Woods' model, following is a
brief description of each stage that we observed in our program.
1. Shock : I don't believe it! She really thinks she is going to make us use the computer for this course!
2. Denial : She can't be serious! No way am I going to do it. She can't make me. This is not the way we do these courses. She doesn't understand how we do things. There is no need to
change the way we do things. She can't be serious...
3. Strong emotion : Wow, she is serious! I can't do it. I don't know how to install the software. I can't do group work using the computer. I can't type well enough. I'll fail this course. I
can't do it. I'd better drop the course. She can't make me do this. I'm going to complain to someone above her.
4. Resistance and withdrawal : OK, I need this course. I can't drop out. But I am not going to do it her way. I will do it my way. No way is anyone going to make me use the
computer. I will get someone to print out all the information. I will either mail in or fax my assignments. I will do this-but it will be my way!
5. Surrender and acceptance : OK, so I can't get through the course without having to do things her way. This is really stupid, but if I am going to do this course, I'll have to use the
computer. I'll probably get a really bad mark-but it is a bad course with a bad instructor.
6. Struggle and exploration : Hmmm, others seem to be doing fine. Maybe I can do this too. My colleagues at work think that it is sort of neat that I am using the Internet for my
course. Maybe this isn't all bad. Maybe I need to try a little harder.
7. Return of confidence : Hey, am I good at this or what! I had no idea how easy the computer is to use. I might even do well in this course.
8. Integration and success : Using the computer for this course was one of the best learning experiences I have ever had! I don't know why I thought I would have a problem learning
this way. It's been a great experience!
Based on our instructional team's observations, interactions, and participants' learning journals, research showed that learners adapting to new technologies and methodologies experience
resistance. This is in agreement with much of the literature that states most adult learners experience resistance based on their expectations, their learning histories, and their predisposition to
learning (Garrison and Shale, 1990; Garrison, 1989). Moore and Kearsley (1996) claim that as many students have little experience learning at a distance, they may be apprehensive about taking
distance education course. This apprehension is further confounded when the Internet is integrated into their learning environments.
Instructional Strategies to Overcome Resistance
Without the support provided by an instructor's physical presence and the comfort of a classroom, what should instructors know that can assist learners in making the transition through the
developmental stages associated with new experiences: from initial shock through the reluctance of surrender to ultimate integration and success? (Woods, 1994). A number of strategies that we
found to be effective are well documented in the literature. For example, according to Moore and Kearsley (1996), the support that is provided for students should reflect factors related to both
instructional credibility and authenticity. That is, learners should be assured of the level of content solidity and reputability as well as feeling comfortable that their needs are being met through
the application of what have come to be known as humanistic tendencies – kindness, humanness, "walking-the-talk," or the alignment of what is said to what is done (Brookfield, 1990).
Moore & Kearsley (1996) emphasize that the information given to learners has to be perceived as up-to-date and relevant, and authoritative in its applicability. Content should be delivered
flexibly in order to accommodate varying needs, learning styles, and schedules. But, beyond that, learners need to be buoyed by their confidence in the institutional authenticity that envelopes the
delivery of first-class content. They probably require, and should receive, guidance in determining what and how to study; they need to be provided with relevant opportunities to apply their
learning, through the vehicles of assignments and projects; they require constructive and timely feedback on their progress and assistance in dealing with program-related administrative problems
and difficulties that arise along the way.
Similarly, Willis (1993) argues that efforts should be made to better meet the needs of distance learners in a number of ways that, once again, emphasize the authenticity of the institution, the
instructor, and reflect the andragogical understanding that participants must take active roles in the distance-delivered course. Learners should be made aware of, and made comfortable with, the
communication methodology – hardware and software and accompanying processes – that will be used for course delivery. In an anticipatory fashion, learners should be prepared for dealing
with the technical problems that will inevitably arise. They should be encouraged to build community across the distance through invitations to share their interests, backgrounds and their
experiences; this activity can be modeled by the instructor. Resulting emphases on learners' individuality will spark sensitivity to different communication styles and varying cultural histories.
Learning's affective domain, so often so well tended to in traditional classrooms by instructors sensitive to adults' learning needs, is as important, if not more so, in the establishment of a
comfortable virtual classroom. Race's (1994) description of a successful student support system includes making learners feel at ease and building their confidence by helping them feel that
they're not alone in their struggle. Learners should be reassured that other learners are having the same problems, that they are not alone in the mistakes they make. Open up the communication
channels for the exchange of information – phone numbers and addresses and so on. These strategies remind learners that even the hardest things can be mastered one step at a time; in giving
study skills advice, the instructor demonstrates that she is there to help, not just to evaluate and assess. In a similar vein, instructors can share practical or personal advice on examination
techniques and work to instill confidence in learners for the writing of exams or the accomplishment of other formidable tasks. Keep learners focussed on the picture beyond the course: what will
they do next? What are the next learning opportunities that will be presented?
The foregoing techniques are all essential parts of extending a learning community virtually – beyond the traditional classroom's parameters. However, more importantly, the factors listed below
should provide a broader, more conceptual framework for instructors introducing virtual education to their teaching methodologies. Specifically, it was our experience that understanding these
elements was essential to success when integrating technologies in a distance program.
Good pedagogy will always reflect a human quality. The reality is that learning technologies will not miraculously metamorphose bad instructors into good ones. They will not increase the
quality of learning. Good pedagogy will forever contain a human element that includes interaction in the learning process. In the end it is the level of the interaction between the learners, the
instructor, and the content that will determine the quality of a learner's educational experience—whether it is face-to-face or distributed learning using the Internet.
Good pedagogy precedes good technology. The value of technologies as a communication medium in the learning process is directly related to the learners' need. A paramount problem with
much of the current technically- enhanced instruction has to do with the fact that many instructors are finding that most technologies are relatively easy to learn and many of the features are
seductive. This often results in good teaching practices (instructional design, significance, depiction, reflective thought) being subsumed because it is fun to play with the media. Almost anyone
can learn how to use technologies; the difficult but critical component, however, is to integrate what we know about how our learners learn with technological expertise. Technology integration is
neither economically nor educationally justifiable without meaningful interaction between the learners, the instructor and the content.
Creating pedagogically sound technology enhanced instructional materials takes time and requires new skills. Most educators are usually surprised and then overwhelmed at the time and skills
required when developing distance education materials. YES! It takes time and requires new skills; it also requires the support of and collaboration from individuals who have competencies in
using learning technologies.
One technology alone is not effective. The web is a wonderful medium for disseminating information, facilitating learner-content interaction and aiding assessment (instructor, learner, and
course). Reading materials also facilitate learner-content interaction. Computer mediated communication helps to facilitate learner-learner and learner-instructor interaction in addition to building
a community of learners, as do audio and videoconferencing and face-to-face instruction. Effective technology integration will include learner-learner interaction, learner-instructor interaction,
learner-content interaction and support learning communities. The provision of these elements necessitates the integration of a number of technologies such as web-based instruction, computer-
mediated conferencing, video and audio communication, print based media, and face-to-face instruction.
Know each technology's strength and weakness. Every educator's decision to integrate technologies in the learning process needs to be based upon an informed understanding of their strengths
and weakness. Upon deciding to use the technologies, educators should have a sound understanding of how to use them as a learning environment, communication medium and as a tool in the
learning process.
Conclusion
The integration of technologies into the learning environment has tremendous potential to remove many situational barriers to learning opportunities. More importantly, however, technology
integration can provide opportunities for learner-learner and learner-instructor interaction in a way that could not, previously, be economically or educationally justified in distance education. In
spite of the problems outlined in this paper, these developments offer very exciting opportunities for distance educators to provide rich and meaningful learning experiences for outreach students.
References
Brookfield. S. (1990). The Skillful Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Daniel, J. (1996). Mega-Universities and knowledge media: Technology strategies for higher education . Great Britain: Biddles Ltd.
Garrison, D. R. & Shale, D. (1990). (Eds.) Education at a Distance: From Issues to Practice . Florida: Robert E. Krieger.
Garrison, D. R. (1989). Understanding Distance Education: A framework for the future. London : Routledge.
Lauzon, A. (1991). Enhancing accessibility to meaningful earning opportunities: A pilot project in online education at the University of Guelph. Research in Distance Education. (3 )4. 2-5.
McCullough, K. & McCullough, J. S. (1994). The promise of the telecommunications superhighway: Conquering the limits of time and space in adult education. Adult Learning .
November/December. 28-29.
Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view . Scarborough, ON.: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Race, P. (1994). The open learning handbook. London: Kogan Page.
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide . Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational technology publications.
Woods, D. R. (1994). Problem-based learning: How to gain the most from PBL .Waterdown, ON.: Donald R. Woods.
Networking The Nation
Noel Craske
Senior Lecturer. Monash University, Australia.
noel.craske@csse.monash.edu.au
George Murdoch
VISE Course Co-ordinator. Australia.
gmurdock@tpgi.com.au
Arno Besse
IT Technician and Internet Trainer. Ballarat University, Australia.
a.besse@ballarat.edu.au
Marijke Heywood
IT Trainer and Web Publications. Ballarat University, Australia.
m.heywood@ballarat.edu.au
Joy Nunn
Course Co-ordinator/Project Manager. Ballarat University, Australia,
j.nunn@ballarat.edu.au
The Australian Government Networking the Nation Project is using the Internet to bring Educational and Community services to
Isolated and Remote communities.
The project training course creates a community of Internet trainers who then become trainers in various hubs of the bush. As each
training course and subsequent placements occur there is an expansion in the number of people using e-mail, conferencing, news group, WWW
and chat sessions. To people in the bush, isolated by enormous distances, this provides the comfort and support that many urban Australians take
for granted. This project has placed a magnifying glass on the reality of telecommunication services in the outback where even a reliable power
source is still a dream for many inhabitants.
The Project
"Internet to the Outback" is part-funded through the Federal Government's "Networking the Nation" program - an initiative designed
to give everyone, living anywhere in Australia, access to the Internet at the end of a five year period. All families in remote or isolated areas of
country Australia are eligible to receive visits from Volunteers for Isolated Students' Education (VISE).
Summary of Progress (Specifics may be found at http://www.ballarat.edu.au/vise)
Training
The training syllabus used to instruct the trainers and which the trainers in turn use to instruct the isolated families/communities has
been developed. Each trainer can link a family to the Web and train them to use email and access the Web in less than the week originally
suggested. Experience demonstrates it is possible to average two per week over a six-week period and allow for unforeseen problems and the
differing stages of development of families.
Equipment
We recommend buying from either a reputable national retailer offering a good warranty and a reliable network of service centres or
from a company offering a proven mail order service for high quality equipment who are able to support the equipment with warranties fully
covering transportation costs in the event of a service requirement.
Connection
The quality of the modem has been the definitive factor in connecting to the World Wide Web, thus it would be better to buy a
computer and add an external modem rather than buy a machine with an internal modem installed.
Concerns and Problems
Quality of Telephone Lines and Services.
The single most outstanding feature with regard to the speed was variation in both the quality and reliability of existing
communications links.
The single most common problem associated with data communication was line noise. A good modem is essential as it has the error
correction ability to compensate for a number of connection problems. However, no modem regardless of quality can provide adequate
connection speeds in some of the areas tested.
Availability of Communication Access
In many areas, access to communication links is becoming limited by congestion as the available number of simultaneous connections
is reached. Internet connection and the resulting longer connection periods will only increase this problem.
Quality of Power Supply
This can indirectly affect communications. Many properties are on the SWER (Single Wire Earth Return). Power supplied was often
inconsistent and subject to surges and brown-out which have the capacity to seriously damage computer and other communications equipment.
Generators on properties where reticulated power is unavailable can also supply less than quality power. Electrical noise suppression equipment
was in many cases below standard or non existent.
The Cost of Telephone Calls to Access the Internet.
There is a disparity in call charging and a total confusion about the multitude of options available to remote consumers.
Viruses
A virus attack in an isolated community, without local expertise or access to up-to-date virus eradication tools, could easily render the
system useless and instantly isolate the community from the Internet. A good anti virus program is essential, but because of the lack of local
expertise more than just a good program is necessary. For this reason we recommend the locally produced "Vet" product from Computer
Associates (formally Cybec). Apart from being an internationally recognised leader in anti-virus technology the support services offered by
Computer Associates are uniquely suited to isolated communities. (http://www.cybec.com.au).
Lessons Learnt
Firstly, it is much cheaper to take one trainer to ten people than is the reverse. Secondly our training the trainer model provides a
valuable ongoing resource for Australian families in remote areas to access and use the Net.
The inadequacies of the existing system will become more apparent as properties take advantage of the Internet to the Outback
program and connect to the Internet. Telecommunications providers should be looking at providing data transfer at rates that match the best
modem levels now available. A speed of no less than 33600 should be the minimum acceptable rate. Most remote areas would be happy to
achieve speeds above 9600.
Web Central
Monash students are currently developing a web site to facilitate many aspects of the VISE project. The development address is be
http://gupta.ct.monash.edu.au/vise.Visitors should appreciate that it will be in a state of developmental flux for most of 1999, however visitor
feedback will be carefully considered and gratefully appreciated.
Conclusion
Emerging satellite services may prove to be a more cost-effective method of providing reliable access to all Internet services. The
response to the "Internet to the Outback" project by has demonstrated an overwhelming need for hands-on training to be delivered in the bush.
Many of the people involved directly and indirectly in the project have indicated that previous projects, although providing hardware to outback
properties, have not achieved their expected outcomes. The commitment of the volunteers to invest their time into the project is having multiple
pay-offs for participants in taking the Internet to the bush. The project has listened to the needs of people in the bush and is delivering "bush
solutions". The success can be attributed to simply listening to the users, a strategy too often overlooked in our rush to spread the technological
message with hardware alone.
References
Candy, P. (1991). Self-direction for life-long learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Freire, P. and Shor, I. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation: Dialogues on transforming education. London. Macmillan Education. IRL. (1998). IRL
Seven Principles. Institute for Research on Learning, <www.irl.org/info/info.html>
Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1988). The Action Research Planner, 3rd. ed. Deakin University Press.
Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of educational technology. London: Routledge.
Negroponte, N. (1995). Being Digital: the road map for survival on the information superhighway. Australia: Hodder & Stoughton.
Oldenburg, R. (1989). The great good place. New York: Paragon House.
Owen, J. (1993). Program evaluation: Forms and approaches. NSW: Allen and Unwin.
Petre, D. (1996). The clever country: Australia's digital future. NSW: Landsdowne Publishing.
Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to learn. Ohio: Merrill Publishing.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) (1997). The Australian Farmers Guide to the Internet, Farmwide Pty Ltd,
<http://www.farmwide.com.au>
Sibillin, A., O'Sullivan, K., Letch, J., Higgins, D. and Heywood, K. (1996). The Virtual University? Symposium 21-22 November, University of
Melbourne.
Moriarty, G. (1998). Telstra puts the Outback in front. Telstra Media Release, May.
The Economist (1995). A survey of telecommunications: the death of distance-a giant effort. September 30.
Information Sources
Information for this paper has been gathered from the following sources: Grazing Properties Baymore, Bunginderry, Dellerain, Sutherland and
Norfolk Stations.
Schools of Distance Education or Schools of the Air: Hay, Broken Hill, Tibaburra, Cobar, Burke, Charleville, Emerald, Longreach, Charters
Towers, Cairns, Mt Isa, Alice Springs and Port Augusta. Line testing was carried out in all the above locations as well as Richmond and Tennant
Creek.
Hardware support IBM, Corporate Community Relations.
Related Web Sites
Monash University
http://gupta.ct.monash.edu.au/vise
University of Ballarat
http://www.ballarat.edu.au/vise
Networking the Nation
http://www.dca.gov.au
Hyundai Country Music Muster
http://www.muster.com.au
SCALING INFORMATION LITERACY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA:
WEB-BASED APPROACHES
Barbara I. Dewey, University of Iowa Libraries, University of Iowa, U.S.A., barbara-dewey@uiowa.edu
This short paper discusses issues and strategies related to scaling information literary programs in the large
university setting. The University of Iowa Libraries' multi-format approach in attempting to reach more of its
28,000 students will be described with a focus on web-based delivery systems developed in partnership with
Colleges and academic programs.
THE NEED:
• The information environment is too complex and changing too rapidly to expect students to acquire
information literacy without a planned, systematic, cumulative instructional program.
• Students must learn critical thinking and research skills as preparation for a lifetime of changing
information needs.
• Effective learning about information retrieval, use, and analysis is tied to a particular information need,
often discipline-specific.
• Students have different learning styles and acquire information in different ways. Any information literacy
program must accommodate these differences by using a variety of approaches that provide practice in
these skills.
• The most effective way to reach students is through collaboration between the Libraries and academic
departments and faculty in integrating information skills into the curriculum and evaluating outcomes
through a variety of means.
INFORMATION LITERACY LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Identify and articulate needs that require information solutions;
• Identify appropriate information sources and execute search strategies appropriate for each resource;
• Interpret and analyze search results;
• Critically evaluate the information retrieved;
• Organize, synthesize, and apply the information;
• Understand the structure of the information environment and the process by which both scholarly and
popular information is produced and disseminated; and
• Understand the ethical issues related to access and use of information.
TIER ONE: A tiered approach that builds on knowledge acquired throughout the students' career has been
developed including strengthening the current introductory research and information seeking components in two
products:
• Online Iowa – updating/enhancing library section of a general university CD-ROM orientation program
that provides a basic understanding of Main Library service points and examples of where to search for
information resources (http://www.uiowa.edu~online/).
• Library Explorer – strengthening the existing partnership where library staff provide instruction on how to
integrate the use of Library Explorer, a computer-based library instruction program with automated "quick
tests of knowledge", other information sources, search strategies, and development of effective research-
related assignments for teaching assistants within their training program. Librarians are subsequently paired
one-on-one with Teaching Assistants to provide customized support. Extensions underway for Library
Explorer include subject-specific "chapters" for different disciplines and special CD-ROM "cuts" from
Library Explorer to use with distance education students who do not have access to the Internet
(http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/libexp/).
TIER TWO – UTRIPLE I: Librarians work with faculty to determine a desirable combination of instructional
formats, assignments, and outcome evaluation methods building on experience derived from current and past
partnerships with GER and upper division course instruction for tier two components in an initiative called
UTripleI (University of Iowa Information Literacy Initiative) for:
• General Education Requirement Courses -- introductory subject-based information literacy component
developed with faculty and built into selected GER courses selected from the Departments of English,
Geography, History, Political Science, and Psychology including query formulation, information seeking
strategies, basic evaluation of information sources, and a basic understanding of copyright and intellectual
freedom issues.
• Science Information Literacy Initiative Project – development of specific information literacy components
related to the special needs of science disciplines and their courses.
• Undergraduate "Majors" Component -- advanced and more complex subject-based information seeking,
retrieval, and analysis components built into selected courses for undergraduate majors.
TIER THREE – FACULTY TRAINING AND SUPPPORT: Efforts to scale information literacy efforts
through faculty training include programs for on the application of learning technologies in their courses:
• nTITLE (New Technologies in the Teaching and Learning Environment – website noted below) is a
summer faculty training program taught largely by librarians. The Center also provides input into the
University Libraries' TWIST (Teaching with Innovative Style and Technology) project
(http://www.uiowa.edu/~ntitle).
• TWIST (Teaching with Style and Innovative Technology) is a three year grant funded program whose major
goal is to create a model program for training faculty to integrate networked information into teaching as
well as information literacy components. TWIST project staff are sponsoring a series of late summer
workshops for faculty and staff to explore ways of fully using information technology in instructional
settings. The sessions focus on building learning environments for students - how to help students learn to
use electronic resources via OASIS (the University Libraries' online catalog), the Web or CD -ROM; how
to build instructional Web sites to guide students as they learn critical thinking skills. One "scaling" factor
in this program is the development of web-based tutorials for faculty to use at anytime. Another scaling
factor is the development of a TWIST "template" for faculty to develop course web pages with an emphasis
on linkages to resources and information literacy-based lessons (http://twist.lib.uiowa.edu).
SUMMARY
Issues and challenges to scaling efforts with be reviewed including the need to "mine" partnerships with faculty
and technologists, the need for improved marketing of the inherent benefits of integrating an information
literacy component into one's course, the difficulty of measuring and evaluating the success of a "scaled"
information literacy program, and the challenge of putting together a coherent program or curriculum in an
easily translatable modular form.
Beyond Over-Integration: GENTLE
Thomas Dietinger, Hermann Maurer, Klaus Schmaranz
IICM, Graz University of Technology, Austria
{tdieting, hmaurer, kschmar}@iicm.edu
Abstract: In this paper we show that a good WBT platform has to provide structured courseware as
well as good online and offline discussion features. Nevertheless it is not possible to fully integrate
special online conferencing tools although they must be usable in a high level WBT environment.
For this reason GENTLE, the implementation of the WBT system proposed here, utilizes the loose
synchronization paradigm that is also discussed more in detail in this paper.
Introduction
Since web-based training (WBT) has been one of the big buzz-words throughout the last years there are many
different opinions which features such a system should provide. Very often WBT is understood to simply consist of
computer-based training (CBT) courses that are accessible via a Web server.
In our opinion a good WBT system needs to provide more than just courseware, it has to be a higly interactive,
collaboarative system that fully utilizes the possibilities of today's networks. WBT users should be able to browse
through the courseware, ask questions, make comments and discuss unclear points with the trainer or also with other
WBT users [see also Skillicorn 96].
We are using the terms ``WBT user'' and ``trainer'' here instead of the widely used terms ``student'' and ``teacher''
because WBT systems are more and more used in corporate intranets rather than only in schools and universities.
Considering the different environments it becomes clear that a successful WBT system has to be highly adaptable to
already existing training procedures and software in a special environment. In corporate environments internal
communication and collaboration is usually standardized throughout the company. The success of a WBT system
therefore mainly depends on the ability of the system to utilize the well known communication channels instead of
defining new ones. Also, WBT users do not want to deal with new software. Further, and even more crucial
companies have their standardized software packages installed on most of their computers and very often do not
allow to install new ones.
These considerations led to the design of GENTLE (GEneral Networked Teaching and Learning Environment) as a
flexible WBT platform rather than a fully integrated software package [see also Maurer98]. In the following section
we will point out the requirements and the resulting concept of the system implemented.
The Concept of GENTLE
The point that we found to be most important for the acceptance of the system was that access to GENTLE has to be
possible using standard Web browsers such as Netscape Navigator or MS Internet Explorer. Without having any
other software package beyond a Web browser installed WBT users have to be able to navigate through the
courseware material and must have the possibility to make notes as well as to take part in offline discussions.
For this reason we are using Hyperwave [see Maurer 96] as the server platform for GENTLE since it already
provides many of the features needed:
• Structured information space: The courseware in the system as well as annotations and discussion groups
have to be hierarchically structured to allow easy navigation through the system. Since Hyperwave allows that
single documents can be members of more than one part of the hierarchy this feature also allows to define
different views for different users and user groups. Consider for example two WBT users taking a course on
Java. One of them is already an experienced programmer while the other is rather a newbie. The newbie will
need much more explanatory material about basic programming paradigms that would be disturbing for the
expert. On the other hand most of the material directly dealing with Java will basically be the same. Instead of
preparing the course twice Hyperwave allows it to share the material of a comprehensive course covering basic
and expert knowledge and just hide the basics from the expert.
• User and group management with profiles: Again taking the example above the system has to provide the
possibility for the users to define their interests, special skills, etc. so that the system can automatically provide
the desired view of a course. To achieve this Hyperwave's user and group management features come into play.
Users can easily define their skill levels as well as personal interests and store them in their user profile.
Together with Hyperwave's clustering features they are then presented exactly with the view of the course that
matches their profile. Another benefit is that users can change their view of the system on the fly by adapting
their preferences.
• Annotation facilities: Hyperwave supports insertion of annotations to documents for authorized users. This
feature can be used for inserting notes to parts of the courseware into the server. These notes can themselves be
annotated again leading to an offline discussion. Annotations themselves can have special types such as
question, answer, agree, disagree and arbitrary others. The types themselves can be visualized by little icons and
therefore users can choose to follow a discussion thread without having to read all the messages to find out the
author's point of view. Besides publicly visible annotations it is also possible to insert private annotations into
the system. Private annotations allow WBT users to make notes for themselves without disturbing other users or
being subject of discussions. With private annotations WBT users can even build up their personal view of the
courseware that can even be made up of parts of several different courses.
• Automatic CD-ROM creation: Hyperwave supports automatic creation of CD-ROMs from parts of the
information hierarchy. This feature can be used for archival purposes, however CD-ROMs can also be made for
WBT users that want to study their courses at home and have no permanent internet connection. Such CD-
ROMs can be used for mere offline courses without the collaboration and discussion facilities, but they also
contain the pointers to the discussion areas on the server. If WBT users are taking the CD-ROM home for
studying offline and if they have an internet connection at home they can also decide to insert annotations
directly from the offline CD-ROM without having to leave their course in order to reconnect to the public
server.
In addition to the offline features discussed above very strong emphasis has been put on online communication
between WBT users and trainers as well as group discussions. This is also exactly the point where full integration of
all possible features into one system becomes more or less infeasible. Just imagine to re-implement all the software
for audio- and videoconferencing used at the moment for the sake of integration! There are many different standards
existing for audio conferencing, video conferencing and whiteboards, just to mention the most widely used online
communication facilities. Some of them rely on high-bandwidth MBone connections, some of them use standard IP
connections, some are commonly used for low quality communication such as Netmeeting, etc. Also different
proprietary high quality (and expensive!) teleconferencing systems are in use in corporate networks. Very often it is
not even possible to integrate the systems because they are using special protocols that are not public knowledge,
even worse, some systems are based on special hardware.
These considerations led us to the point already stated above: GENTLE has to serve as a universal platform
supporting the other systems rather than trying to fully integrate them. To be able to support the different standards
easy to use synchronization mechanisms had to be found. Since these synchronization mechanisms have to be an
integral part of the WBT system available on every single platform and in all different environments our choice was
to use email and a simple Java chat applet. Even when execution of Java applets in the Web Browser is not allowed
in a corporate environment (which is often the case!) email is a basic communication feature available everywhere.
The Java chat applet is then the more sophisticated online solution for environments that allow its execution.
Let us now consider an example how an online discussion about a certain topic in the courseware can take place
using a proprietary high quality video conferencing system and a whiteboard: WBT users that find out that they need
clarification of a certain topic for deeper understanding simply click on a button establish discussion session in their
Web browser. A dialog pops up and the users can choose with who to discuss this, e.g. the trainer, other WBT users
or a certain predefined group of persons. This dialog also automatically determines the part of the courseware that is
currently loaded. Further, users can also choose when to discuss the topic: either immediately, which implies that the
discussion partners need to have their Java chat applet running so that they can be informed online, or later at a
certain time.
If immediate discussion is chosen and the discussion partners are online a text chat session is opened and the initial
message that a user wants some online discussion about the previously determined topic is sent to all partners. The
partners can now all open their video conferencing tools and whiteboards and start the discussion.
The other case that either the use of the Java chat applet is not permitted or the discussion partners are not online for
chat at the moment results in automatically sending an email to the partners that some discussion should take place
for example at 3:00 pm the next day. If desired the system can also automatically post an announcement about the
topic and time of the discussion in the courseware communication section so that everybody who is interested can
also take part in the discussion. At the desired time all the partners can then open their video conferencing tools and
whiteboards and start the discussion as stated above.
When a discussion session is already established further synchronization (if not already integrated in the special
tools) can again take place using either the Java chat applet or email. Something like e.g. ``please open the page at
URL so and so'' can easily be sent to the partners.
Using this loose synchronization paradigm all the features of highly specialized conferencing tools can be obtained
in the WBT environment without having to integrate them. In environments where GENTLE is installed the users
can themselves agree on certain tools to be used and do not have to leave their well-known environments. New
developments in this area can easily be used without having to do the whole integration work for the system.
In addition to tool integration by loose synchronization we identified two other very important features that the
system has to provide: intelligent helpers and basic user agents. Intelligent helpers provide the ability to monitor the
users and store the data collected in the user profiles. User monitoring can take place by either using questionnaires
from time to time or by evaluating the kind of help users need. If for example users very often require help about
basic system features such as ``where do I click to go to the study room'' the intelligent helper will deduce that the
user is new to the system.
Evaluation of the monitoring data give the users feedback about their skills and can also be used to automatically
generate different views of the system depending on the users' skills as has already been discussed above. Different
views does not only mean different views of the courseware but also different levels of help. Users that are new to
the system will get more general help on how to use the system than experienced ones. The longer (and more often)
users work with the system and the fewer basic questions they ask the less basic hints they will obtain. Instead, help
will provide more hints about advanced system features. The result is that WBT users do not only learn their
courseware but also implicitly learn more about the system itself in a very natural way.
Basic user agents in GENTLE are easy to configure helpers that run on the server side. Their tasks are to make the
users' lives easier when looking for new information. For example users can have an agent in the system informing
them automatically whenever new courseware on a topic is inserted in the server. Another feature should assure that
users be informed automatically whenever a discussion session on a certain topic takes place (if the discussion is not
private!).
After discussion of the basic concepts of GENTLE the following sections will deal more in detail with the
implementation of the system.
The Structure of GENTLE
As has already been discussed the core of GENTLE is a Hyperwave server providing all the basic features needed
for implementation of the WBT platform scenario developed. The whole system is divided into the following
modules:
• Courseware structure management
• WBT user registration management
• Personal profile management
• Personal study room management
• Offline discussion area management
• Online discussion announcement management
• Shared bookmark management
These modules make up the basic integral system functionality of GENTLE as a flexible WBT platform. They also
prepare the way to use highly specialized software using the loose synchronization paradigm. In what follows, the
tasks of the single modules are described in more detail. Again we want to mention here that no additional software
except a standard Web browser is necessary to perform the tasks discussed below.
Courseware Structure Management
As has already been mentioned courseware has to be structured in an easy to navigate hierarchy [see also Maglajlic
98]. Providing a good structure also results in the possibility to provide different views of the system for different
users and user groups. GENTLE allows courseware to be prepared in every desired format and is not limited to e.g.
HTML pages or even worse to some special proprietary format. Trainers can choose the software most suitable for
their courses. The only point that has to be considered is which software is installed on the WBT users' computers.
Mostly this is again a corporate decision because some software has already been internally used for a long time.
Courses in GENTLE can now be structured in several different ways in parallel and the WBT users are then
automatically provided with the view best suitable for their skills. First of all single courses are divided into sections
and knowledge areas. Second all the parts that make up the course are categorized by the skill levels that WBT users
shall have to see these parts. Third additional material and cross-references to other courses or parts of them are also
inserted in the hierarchy, again with the necessary users' skill levels. The skill level categorization of the courseware
is then used in combination with the personal user profiles to determine which parts to present to a certain user.
WBT User Registration Management
New users in GENTLE can be registered in either of two ways:
• Automatic user registration: If this mode is allowed by the system operators users can themselves create a
WBT user account on the system, register their desired username, password, email and other desired data. These
users then initially get the rights to read certain areas of the courseware and take part in some of the discussion
areas as defined by the system administrators. Registration is simply performed by filling out an HTML form.
• Centralized user registration: Again users fill out a simple HTML form with all their data. Instead of
automatically registering the users and giving them initial rights the data is sent to the system administrator. The
administrator then either accepts or rejects the registration and defines the initial rights of the certain WBT user.
Once WBT users are registered they also get their personal profiles and their personal study rooms for their work.
Personal Profile Management
Personal profiles exist for all registered WBT users. In the personal profiles two kinds of datasets are stored:
• Personal data such as the real name, email address, etc. that need to be known by others to get in contact with
them. Also special access rights, group memberships and other administrative data is stored here. The system
administrators decide which part of the personal user data is accessible for users and which part is private.
• Personal preferences to be evaluated by the system. The preferences contain the users' experience and skill
levels as well as all other statistical data collected by the helpers. Also contained are the agents that the users
have installed together with their parameters. Besides and very important the preferences also contain
information about all loosely synchronized tools that certain users are wanting to use for online discussion such
as the kind of video-conferencing software, the whiteboard, etc. With this information the system can decide
automatically if a request for discussion can be satisfied and the system can also automatically choose the way
to loosely synchronize communication (e.g. to use email or the Java chat applet).
Personal Study Room Management
As has already been mentioned all WBT users obtain their personal study room. This is the main environment for
WBT users that they see when working with the system. The personal study room provides all the navigational
features as well as all administrative features accessible to the users such as profile, helper and agent management,
personal business cards and more.
In the study room WBT users also always get a dynamic overview of actually enroled and already finished courses
as well as suggested courses according to their interests and skills.
If allowed by the system administrators WBT users also can get a limited amount of space on the server. This space
can for example be used to upload additional material into their personal workspace in the study room. If desired
WBT users can also declare parts of their personal workspace publicly readable if they want to publish special
additional material to a course.
Another part of the study room is a basic personal messaging system that works similar to email but via the
courseware server. Using this messaging system WBT users and teachers can communicate with each other and
manage their message space as can be done with email. The advantage of this messaging system compared to email
is the availability on the server. Users can quickly read and write messages from everywhere without needing access
to their email system. This feature is especially important for trainers that are travelling a lot and do not want to scan
all their email from somewhere in the world to find out about new questions asked.
Offline Discussion Area Management
Two different offline discussion facilities are part of GENTLE, offline discussion forums and personal messaging
which has already been discussed above. Offline discussion forums are structured according to their topics and are
usually belonging to certain courses. Depending on their course access rights WBT users have access to certain
forums and can insert questions, notes or opinions.
As an example students could find an unclear formulation in the courseware and want to clarify that point. In this
case they only have to mark the unclear text area and a simple click on a button in the course environment of their
personal study room opens a dialog. The dialog automatically maintains a pointer to the marked unclear section and
lets the users write some text. Besides also the type of discussion entry can be selected, at the moment question,
answer, agree, disagree, remark and hint are supported. Then the whole entry with the pointer to the unclear section
is inserted into the discussion forum. Besides also an email message is sent to the trainer to alert him of the new
entry if desired. The trainer then opens the forum, finds the new entry and immediately sees due to the special icon
that this is for example a question. When opening the question the trainer obtains the question text together with the
automatically generated pointer to the unclear section in the courseware. Now the trainer can answer the question in
the same way the WBT user asked it and the answer is inserted into the forum and automatically interlinked with the
question. The answer itself can then be subject to new questions or remarks and so forth resulting in an offline
discussion. Discussions need not be publicly accessible, WBT users as well as trainers also have the possibility to
declare entries private which means that only the persons involved in the discussion can read them.
Shared Bookmark Management
Experience with WBT systems has shown that many users search the Web for additional information and store
interesting pages in their client-side bookmark files. The result is that all the users have to do a lot of work to find
partially overlapping material. For this reason GENTLE also provides a facility to maintain bookmarks that are
shared amongst WBT usergroups. Whenever WBT users find an interesting document they can simply click on a
button in their environment that opens a shared bookmark dialog. In this dialog they can mark the usergroup for
which the pointer is interesting and insert the URL that they found with some additional description. Other users
being members of this workgroup then find the interesting entry the next time they look into the group document. It
is also possible to install a user agent that automatically informs the group members of new entries in the shared
bookmarks via email.
Online Discussion Announcement Management
As has already been discussed in the overall system concept arbitrary online discussion tools such as high-level
videoconferencing software or shared whiteboards can be used together with the GENTLE with loose
synchronization. One possibility to establish an online discussion is to post a message in an announcement forum
with a call for participation in a conference at a given time.
The online discussion announcement forum is managed similarly to the offline discussion forum. Users can open a
dialog from within their study room, write a call for an online conferencing session and give it a topic and a type.
Besides the desired members and usergroups for this conferencing session are selected as well as the session is
marked to be a public or a private session. This call is then inserted in the discussion announcement forum readable
only for the desired group of persons. Besides all conferencing partners are automatically informed of the call via
email.
The partners receiving a call for discussion then have the possibility to agree to this call or for example propose a
different time for the session. This proposal is then also sent to all the partners and posted in the forum. Discussion
then goes on until all participants have agreed.
If the session is declared to be a public session the final announcement is also made readable for everyone while all
previous discussion entries remain private to the participants. WBT users who have an agent in the system looking
for public conferencing sessions on certain topics are then also automatically informed of this event.
Loosely Synchronized Online Collaboration Features
Although all the offline features of GENTLE already make it a very powerful WBT platform the concept of loose
synchronization is the biggest step towards the future of WBT systems. The idea is simple but effective: trainers and
WBT users agree on the high-level collaboration tools that they want to use together with GENTLE. All users of the
system have profile entries with the tools that they are able and willing to use for collaboration, e.g.
videoconferencing systems, whiteboards, etc.
Performing an online discussion using the high-level online collaboration tools is then done in three steps:
• Call for online discussion: As has already been described GENTLE manages online discussion
announcements. When posting a call for discussion the callers are able to select the tools that they want to use
and the system automatically looks up the profiles of the participants to find out whether they all support the
desired software. If not the system returns with a proposal of different possibilities.
The system also looks up the loose synchronization mechanism supported by the participants and decides
whether online chat can be used or whether synchronization has to take place by simple email. All information
about the tools and the synchronization is automatically included in the call.
Discussion about the call until the final agreement is then performed using the strategy mentioned in the
previous section.
• Establishing an online discussion session: At the agreed time all participants open their collaboration tools
and start the session. In parallel they also have their Web browsers open and depending on the agreed
synchronization mechanism open the automatic email or online chat dialog.
• Synchronization of users during online discussions: During a discussion session either the automatic email or
the online chat dialog are used for synchronizing context switches. For example if partners wants to switch to a
different page in the Web browser they simply copy their desired URL into the synchronization dialog.
Depending on the agreed mechanism this dialog then either sends a message to the online chat system or
delivers this message via email to all the partners in the session. As soon as all the partners received the
message they simply navigate to the desired location and acknowledge the receipt of the message in the
synchronization dialog. Again this acknowledgement is either delivered as a chat message to the initiator or sent
back as email.
References
[Maglajlic 98] Maglajlic S., Maurer H., Scherbakov N.: Separating Structure and Content: Authoring Educational Web
Applications; Proceedings Ed-Media 98, 1998, p 880-884.
[Maurer 96] Maurer H.: Hyperwave: The Next Generation Web Solution; Addison Wesley Pub. Co., 1996.
[Maurer 98] Maurer H.: Using the WWW System Hyperwave as the Basis of a General Networked Teaching and Learning
Environment; CIT 6, 1998, p 63-72.
[Skillicorn 96] Skillicorn D.: Using Distributed Hypermedia for Collaborative Learning in Universities; The Computer Journal,
Vol. 39, No 6, 1996, p 471-482. File translated from TEX by TTH, version 2.01. On 28 Jun 1999, 14:35.
On-line Support of On-Campus Education:
An Implementation of a Resources-Based Approach
Parviz Doulai
Faculty of Informatics
University of Wollongong
Australia
parviz@uow.edu.au
Adopting a Resource-Based Approach to On-Campus Education
As university budgets are under constant pressure and class sizes continue to grow, affordable solutions are
needed to preserve the quality of on-campus education. One way to achieve this is to utilize new and emerging
dynamic Web environments in providing classroom support and fostering students learning. The new Web-based
educational technologies provide students with cost-effective choices beyond those normally available in a
centralized environment like a lecture theatre.
Web technology is increasingly being used to satisfy the requirements of resource-based approaches in distance
education. For on-campus education, the potential of Web technology is not being fully realized. The Web and
its associated technologies are capable of supplementing classroom-based teaching and learning strategies by
offering a variety of innovative pedagogical processes. Web technology can meet students' individual learning
needs and learning styles by offering varied and flexible learning opportunities (Bishop et al. 1997).
Distance education typically employs a resource-based approach to curriculum design. The resource materials in
distance education are designed to facilitate student learning largely independent of real-time contact with
instructors. On-campus education, on the other hand, normally functions in standard teacher-centred classrooms,
and on-campus students generally rely on face-to-face interaction with instructors. Numerous innovations have
been introduced to transform the traditional on-campus education into a more learner-centred environment where
students can discover and construct knowledge with the help of introspection and peer interactions. The use of
technology can significantly facilitate the application of resource-based approaches in traditional lecture-based
on-campus courses.
This paper illustrates the usage of instructional resources that exploit the interactive and communication capacity
of modern technology. Incorporation of such resources into curriculum design not only facilitates the
convergence of on- and off-campus educational programs (Gosper & Rich 1998) but, according to advocates,
can produce other strategic and educational benefits. This paper also looks at the actual students usage of a
sample implementation of a dynamic learning environment and summarizes its students survey results.
Description of the Course, Enrolment and Logistics
The course, IACT101: Introduction to Information and Communication Technology focuses on providing a basic
technical understanding of computers and connectivity. In 1998 about 200 students registered for IACT101 of
whom about 190 completed the course requirements. The students were from a variety of academic backgrounds.
IACT101 is a 6 credit-point, one semester course. At the University of Wollongong, a typical full time student
undertakes 24 credit points per semester. The classes met for three hours per week consisting of an hour lecture
and two hours recitation and computer laboratory.
The IACT101 course was the University of Wollongong's first full-featured implementation of a technology-
enhanced on-campus delivery. The World Wide Web Course Tools (WebCT) was used to develop course
resources and deliver the resulting learning environment to students. The IACT101 was chosen as the pilot
project to demonstrate the feasibility and the potential benefits and costs of on-line support systems. WebCT is
now the standard platform for developing and delivering Web courses at the University of Wollongong.
The "IACT101 Learning Environment" is logically organized into six virtual corners whereby the students use
the Web browser as the uniform user interface in accessing the course-related information and interacting with
the system.
• Classroom Corner where students receive lesson contents, tutorial and workshop notes as well as a variety
of course related information and announcements.
• Student Lounge that is dedicated to most activities that involve students. These include the information
about student progress in the subject, test and assignment scores and course records. The Student Lounge
also contains a "Student Presentation" area where the results of students collaborative projects are viewed.
• Student Communication Corner that offers WebCT built-in bulletin board, private mail and real-time chat
tools (Goldberg, 1997). The tool that was used most extensively by all students was the bulletin board. It
served as the main forum for course communication, and provided an effective tool for students to
participate in class discussions outside the regular lecture and recitation sessions.
• Assessment and Survey Corner houses assessment-related information and assessment tasks such as
assignments, on-line quizzes and "Critical Thinking" tasks. The bulletin board gave students a good
platform to practice the task of critical thinking in this subject. A dynamic link was established between
Critical Thinking tasks, weekly face-to-face recitation sessions, the bulletin board postings and the
consequent follow up postings. This dynamic link worked nicely in IACT101 learning environment.
• Additional Resources and Help/Student Manual.
Student Use and Student Tracking Information
During the first eight weeks of the operation of IACT101 learning environment, the site had:
1. around 8000 visits; approximately one visit per student per working day,
2. over 2000 articles were posted to the bulletin board (about half related to the subject matter),
3. close to 1200 times the timed/on-line quiz environment were used by students, close to 800 on-line
electronic submissions were made (short assignments and Critical Thinking tasks), and
4. 1800 hours of students engagement and interaction with on-line course notes was recorded.
More detailed statistics collected at the end of the semester (week14) showed a linear increase in student use and
a close to uniform usage distribution across students.
Student Survey
Two on-line questionnaires were administered to obtain information regarding student access to the course and
student acceptance of, and reaction to, the IACT101 learning environment. Information on the effectiveness of
peer interaction and perception of the on-line learning environment as a tool to influence students' learning were
collected and analysed. Some 176 students completed both questionnaires, and a vast majority indicated that the
Web-based learning environment directly contributed towards their active learning of the subject matter (Survey,
1998). The implementation of the on-line support of IACT101 increased the class average score by 9% and
increased the completion rate by 10% compared to the previous year where the Web-based learning environment
was not used, but all other aspects of IACT101 were the same.
Conclusion
Providing on-line support for classroom-based education has potentially significant educational and
administrative benefits. A resource-based approach provides an effective and affordable mechanism for
achieving improved quality in traditional on-campus education. In IACT101 case, the majority of students
appreciated the efforts of the instructor, were excited about learning while interacting with others, and expressed
the opinion that the IACT101 technology-enhanced learning environment directly contributed towards their
active learning and satisfaction.
References
Bishop, A. S., Greer, J. E., & Cooke, J. E. (1997). The Co-operative Peer Response System: CPR for Students. Proceedings
of ED-MEDIA 97/ED-TELECOM 97, Calgary, Canada, 1997, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education
(AACE) Charlottesville, VA, 172-178.
Goldberg, M. W. (1997). Communication and Collaboration Tools in WebCT, Proceedings of the conference Enabling
Network-Based Learning, May 28 - 30, 1997, Espoo, Finland.
Gosper, M. V. & Rich, D. C. (1998). Introducing Flexibility into Educational Programs: The Macquarie University
Experience. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA98/ED-TELECOM98, Calgary, Canada, 1997, Association for the Advancement of
Computing in Education (AACE), Charlottesville, VA, 472-478.
Survey (1998). http://edt.uow.edu.au/edtlab/iact101/survey_results/index.html
In-service Teachers Teaching Pre-service Teachers Technology
John H. Durnin
Department of Education and Human Services
Villanova University
USA
jdurnin@email.vill.edu
The proposed project is an initiative through university courses to have graduate in-service teachers, who have learned
the use of technology for classroom instruction, offer workshops to undergraduate pre-service teachers. The goals of the
project are two-fold. One is to prepare in-service teachers for collegial leadership in using instructional technology
through experience in planning and offering workshops to pre-service teachers, and the second is to prepare pre-service
teachers for the instructional use of technology in the classroom.
The specific objectives of the project are to develop in pre-service teachers, as well as the in-service teachers, the
competencies:
$ To facilitate student use of multimedia systems in their subject matter learning
$ To develop instructional material and lessons that involve students in the investigation of content areas
through the use of technology.
$ To implement the WWW as an educational resource for both teaching and student learning
$ To develop computer generated verbal and graphic presentations to use with direct instruction
$ To develop and deliver lessons that use the interactive capabilities of commercial software, CD ROM, laser
disc, digital versatile disc and video cassette to involve students in the subject matter.
$ To assist students in their applications of technology to communicate about a subject
$ To guide student use of technology for individual or group inquiries into academic subjects.
To accomplish these objectives, a multiple sections undergraduate professional development course for pre-service
teachers will be given during a 14 week semester. Concurrently, a graduate course on using technology in the classroom
will be offered to in-service teachers.
The proposed technologically enhanced undergraduate course will be presented in a recently renovated computer
classroom/laboratory that can accommodate 16 students per class, each on a computer. The computers are networked
new Power MacIntosh G3's. The classroom/laboratory also houses two color printers, a scanner, a laser disc player, a
video cassette recorder, camcorder, a digital versatile disc (DVD) player and CD rewriteable drive. The room will also
serve the graduate course for in-service teachers.
The graduate course will be offered once a week in early evening. The undergraduate sections will each be offered for 2 2
hours once a week on a late afternoon schedule to make them available to the graduate students directing the workshops. The
graduate students will receive intensive instruction on technology with respect to operating systems, minor maintenance and
troubleshooting, functions of computer networking and printing, word processing, data base, spread sheet, slide show and
presentation software, CD ROM, laser disc, DVD and the WWW with regard to classroom teaching. They, in turn, will be
divided into teams to present three 2 2 hour workshops each, under the supervision of a university professor, to the pre-
service teachers. The workshops will be used to instruct the pre-service teachers in the generic technology competencies
listed previously. In total, the pre-service teachers will receive six workshops focusing specifically on the use of technology
in the classroom directed by the in-service teachers during the 14 week semester. In this manner the pre-service teachers will
be learning and interacting with the in-service teachers concerning technology in the implementation of the above
competencies. Furthermore, the in-service teachers by instructing the pre-service teachers will be improving their own
expertise beyond the novice level and demonstrating leadership that could aid them in the facilitation of technology among
their colleagues.
As a requirement of the undergraduate course the pre-service teachers will be expected to spend, at least, three hours with an
in-service teacher in a secondary or elementary school classroom. The pre-service teacher will be required to develop in
conjunction with the in-service teacher a short lesson that can be given to the elementary or secondary students. Since all of
the schools in the participating school district have a computer laboratory, the pre-service teacher will develop a lesson using
that facility. Thus, the undergraduate students will have an opportunity to apply their newly acquired technological abilities in
the classroom.
The project will be evaluated in several ways. First, a standard instrument for evaluating the graduate and undergraduate
courses will be applied. However, in addition to this standard evaluation, feedback with respect to specific components of a
course or workshop will be solicited from the students. Furthermore, the instructors will use a self evaluation form following
each lesson in order to determine from their perspective what was effective in the lesson and what was not. The in-service
teachers will be required to complete similar self evaluations following each workshop. The views and recommendations of
in-service teachers cooperating with the undergraduate students= field experience will also be sought.. These evaluations
should provide, at minimum, indirect evidence with respect to the effectiveness of the project and its effect upon students in
the partnering K-12 classrooms. Part of our estimation of success of the project will be evaluated according to the feedback
received from the pre-service and in-service teachers.
Since all the courses are part of the academic program, the pre-service teachers will be evaluated according to the
performance and planning of their technology related lessons. The undergraduate course is a professional development
course and students are required to plan and present mini lessons. Rubrics that address the use of technology have already
been developed for a graduate course for in-service teachers. These rubrics can easily be adapted for the evaluation of the
undergraduate students. In addition with regard to the field experience, feedback will be sought with respect to the pre-
service teachers= technological abilities in a classroom environment. This feedback will be considered in conjunction with
performance in the university classroom.
This project has received initial funding from the State of Pennsylvania as a pilot program attempting to facilitate pre-service
and in-service interactions with respect to the classroom use of technology. Questions and suggestions with respect to the
project will be entertained from the attendees to this presentation.
Acknowledgements: This project is supported in part by funds from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania's Link to Learn
Project.
How the Construction & Analysis of Digital Movies
Support Theory-Building
Ricki Goldman-Segall, Associate Professor & Director
MERLin (Multimedia Ethnographic Research Laboratory)
Department of Curriculum Studies
University of British Columbia, Canada
http: www.merlin.ubc.ca
<ricki.goldman-segall@ubc.ca>
Maggie Beers, Doctoral Candidate
MERLin (Multimedia Ethnographic Research Laboratory)
Department of Language Education
University of British Columbia, Canada
http: www.merlin.ubc.ca
<magbeers@interchange.ubc.ca>
Suzanne de Castell, Professor
Faculty of Education
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
http://www.educ.sfu.ca/gentech/index.htm
<decaste@sfu.ca>
Mary Bryson, Associate Professor
Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education
University of British Columbia, Canada
http://www.educ.sfu.ca/gentech/index.htm
<brys@interchange.ubc.ca>
Brian Reilly, Assistant Professor
Educational Technology Leadership Program
School of Education and Allied Studies
California State University Hayward
Hayward, CA, USA
http://aeon.csuhayward.edu/~breilly
<breilly@csuhayward.edu>
Introduction
Ricki Goldman-Segall
We are at a time in the development of new tools when we can choose to design digital media authoring
and annotation tools to promote the representation of many perspectives and identities. In this panel,
researchers who have used digital media extensively over the last decade will address how "participants"
in studies using digital media become collaborators and co-authors of rich-media texts. We will address
how we invite not only the participants, but also readers and viewers to partake in the construction of the
story being created. The question we will be tackling in this panel is: Does the construction and analysis
of digital movies support theory-building? And is that theory-building equitable? We will explore this
issue from various perspectives: tools and techniques; gender and culture; creative arts and media
sciences; science and society; language and culture; learning and research methods; epistemology and
ethnography; and, digital data and design teams. We will also discuss the theoretical perspectives on
methodological issues that deal with how the making of media stories becomes a platform for discussing
important issues such as: whose story is being told? whose purpose is being presented? what's the story?
which story gets told? why do we tell stories in our knowledge making? and, what tools do we need to
create these stories?
The underlying premise of this panel is that the creation of digital movies is a social experience very much
affecting and affected (and sometimes thwarted) by the cultures in which they are created. As creators
represent themselves and others in their personal digital artifacts, they contribute to the larger cultural
context in which their work is situated, thereby changing the nature of the learning environment and the
cultures which constitute the community. Electronic media, when used in teaching and learning, thus
involves both students and educators in a reflexive ethnographic experience where they can build,
deconstruct, and reconstruct their own and each other's cultures. By inviting the "audience" to participate
in their interpretation, learners can observe how new views are layered about these media creations,
extending the personal cultural story. A platform for multi-loguing is built and new communities of
inquiry are formed.
How Teaching & Learning Change Using Media-Rich Texts:
Design Teams Using Ethnographic Methods & Tools
Ricki Goldman-Segall
As chair, moderator, and one of the presenters, I will invite the audience to think about the topic: How
Teaching and Learning Change Using Media-Rich Texts: Design Teams Using Ethnographic Methods &
Tools. This topic was my particular focus of a UBC Teaching & Learning Enhancement grant called
Making Movies, Making Theories: Digital Media Tools for Educating Educators to Connect Experiences
to Curriculum written by Goldman-Segall (PI) and Beers (Co-PI), 1998. The study was carried out in a
Curriculum Studies Course called The Digital Media Classroom taught by Goldman-Segall and in a
Modern Language Education course of taught by Beers. In The Digital Media Classroom , students created
digital movies around the theme, Forests Past, Present, and Future and then had the opportunity to
analyze their constructions using both Constellations and WebConstellations™, tools I have created to
layer viewpoints and build not only the thick description, but also thick interpretations. Students
connected their personal experience to the course content and critiqued the concepts they were studying by
designing cultural artifacts for the purpose of viewing each other's constructions using networked tools to
share, annotate, and analyze their living narratives in relation to the subject being studied in the
classroom.
One of recent innovations in Web-based media learning environments is that members of emerging online
cultures can make meaning of the rich media texts they construct as collaborative design teams. They can
share their points of viewing and build upon each other's thinking. They can construct knowledge together
as a community, creating new interpretations. And, they can exhibit digital media artifacts using a range
of media "forms" that call for a new method of e-value/ation . Networked digital media tools for
collaborative investigation offer learners, educators, and researchers the opportunity to negotiate
interpretations leading to more inclusive theories of knowledge. Early tools on the Web promised this
more inclusive cross-cultural paradigm concerning the generation of human knowledge. These new tools
deliver.
Yet, still we ask ourselves: How does this latest technology change our previously-held notions of teaching
and learning, researching and publishing? How do we design learning environments to facilitate
innovative platforms for engagement and response within these socially constructed and mediated
communities of inquiry? In my presentation, I will describe how learners and educators use tools and
techniques for collaborative theory building. These research tools become learning environments—virtual
places where theories can be negotiated and shared as users view data from diverse perspectives. They
become places where learners and educators work as teams to construct theories as they explore more
deeply the real and virtual worlds they inhabit
Yet, these new media cannot be embraced without taking into account the effect they will have on our
interpretation and construction of culture. By becoming involved in making their own digital movies,
student and faculty creators may better understand the layers of discourse which characterize both their
own and others' cultures and can, in the process, participate in an ever evolving cultural discourse, thereby
changing the nature of the didactic learning environment typically inhabiting our academic institutions.
By becoming active participants in the research process, students, whom I will describe in this panel, were
better able to examine diverse points of viewing embodied not only within the various cultures they are
members but within themselves as a single individual.
Cultural Readings of Digital Texts:
A Media-Based Approach to Foreign Language Teaching & Learning
Maggie Beers
The new British Columbia foreign language curriculum for grades 5-12 highlights the importance of
cultural understanding and positive attitudes for students' success in their language learning endeavors as
well as in their ability to assume their roles as international citizens. In order to effectively integrate the
notion of culture into their curriculum, foreign language teachers are encouraged to look beyond the fields
of linguistics and literature to those of anthropology, sociology, psychology and education and to adopt a
critical pedagogy of intercultural discourse which speaks to the multiple voices that comprise an
individual and her culture (Kramsch, C. and von Hoene, L., 1995).
Despite encouragement to use emerging technologies to create innovative learning environments that
enable students to become ethnographers, rather than 'tourists' (Goldman-Segall, 1998, Fischer, 1996),
foreign language teachers cite 'textbook notes' and 'authentic texts' as their top resources for teaching
culture (Moore, 1996). Yet modern media, with their capabilities to create "media rich texts" complete
with sound, images and video, create a new, unexplored predicament for the language teacher and learner
in this new role as ethnographer. Whereas the anthropologist traditionally started from a context-and-
experience-rich environment and imagined a 'text', the language teacher and learner start with a 'text'
and must imagine a context, drawing from previous experience, knowledge, or stereotypes about the
foreign culture (Teroaka, 1989).
Based on communicative language teaching and constructionist learning models, I've implemented a
media-based approach which encourages pre-service and in-service foreign language teachers to use their
personal experiences to create and interpret multi-layered "media rich texts." Participants use a digital
movie authoring and design tool, CineKit™, to make representations of themselves in the form of digital
movies and then use WebConstellations™ to share, annotate and critique their living works in relation to
the subject, (the integration of language and culture with modern media) , being studied in the course.
The aim of this research is to develop theories about how culture and representation affect one's reading
and interpretation of media texts. An initial pilot study to test this approach was funded by a UBC
Teaching & Learning Enhancement grant: Making Movies, Making Theories: Digital Media Tools for
Educating Educators to Connect Experiences to Curriculum, written by Goldman-Segall (PI) and Beers
(Co-PI), 1998, and carried out in July/August of 1998 in a Language Education Course I designed and
taught for this study: Advanced Studies in Language Education: Integrating Language and Culture with
Modern Media (MLED 480B). The final phase of this research will be completed in the same course in
May/June of 1999.
References
Fischer, G. (1996). Tourist or explorer? Reflections on the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals
29(1), 73-81.
Goldman-Segall, R. (1998). Points of viewing children's thinking: A digital ethnographer's journey. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kramsch, C. and von Hoene, L. (1995). The dialogic emergence of difference: Feminist explorations in foreign
language learning and teaching. In Stanton, D.C., and Stewart, A.J. Feminisms in the academy. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 330-357.
Moore, Z. (1996) Culture: How do teachers teach it? In Moore, Z. (Ed.) Foreign language teacher education:
Multiple perspectives. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 269-299.
Teraoka, A.A. (1989). Is culture to us what text is to Anthropology? A response to Jeffrey M. Peck's paper. The
German Quarterly 62 (2), 188-191.
New Research Tools/Gender and Society
Suzanne de Castell & Mary Bryson
What is critical digital ethnography, and why do we need it? This is a very important question. For as we
learn to use the new research tools digital media provide, we might be forgiven for overlooking, in our
warranted enthusiasm for the ways of seeing they make possible, some dimensions of the medium which
can just as easily prevent us from seeing. In Fictions of Feminist Ethnography , Kamala Visweswaren
(1994) speaks of the tension between deconstructive practices and realist images: that this is a necessary
and productive tension is a claim we will explore by presenting, as examples, the particular uses we have
made of digital "texts" within the GenTech research group (see http://www.educ.sfu.ca/gentech/) that we
co-direct.
The GenTech project has, for the past six years, focused its research efforts on "girls, tools and schools".
We have argued that access to uses of tools is a gendered performance enacted through its representation,
and we argue, therefore, that research 'stories' ought conscientiously to interfere with any propensity to
represent gender "differences" as natural, fixed or immutable. In this session, we will make use of
GenTech's digital movies about gender and tool use to explore a conception of theory as theatre and
digital research as "culture-jamming". (1998)
We have all been trained, through our years of text-based education, to read deconstructively, to question
and challenge and unpack the literary and figurative and narratological devices whose evolution and
sophistication is part of our long and well-developed literate tradition. It is in this way that theory can
outstrip practice---even with new tools. We know that we, and perhaps to a lesser extent, our students, are
far less well-equipped to deconstruct visual texts, and there is a substantial body of scholarship from
within screen theory which testifies to our increased vulnerability to being what we might call
"impressionable readers" of filmic and video "texts"(Joyrich, 1995). As one grade 3 student insisted
"When we see it on television, we think its true". We want to build on this simple reminder, an important
caution ---its not just the grade threes who "think its true". As filmmaker Trinh T Minh-ha has advised
us, we need to be ever-conscious of the way fiction does its best work at the very heart of factual
representation.
When we read an account of, for example, gender inequity in a science classroom, we are accustomed to
speculating, re-considering, weighing the evidence, imagining counter-instances, presuming there is
much more we are NOT being told. But when we view, for instance, an eleven year old girl telling us
"Boys and girls have equal access to the school computers, only she herself is "just not interested" in
computers, or a high school girl reassuring us that "girls can do anything, I just don't like science", our
critical faculties are more inclined to, as Wittegnstein put it, "go on a holiday". The danger for us is that
we risk reproducing, albeit with new research tools, the very positivism we imagine ourselves to have left
far behind. And clearly, a proliferation of realist accounts alters that not a whit: all that this produces is a
pluralistic positivism, but positivism it is all the same.
As is so often the case, we may need to go backwards in order to move ahead, and where we can most
usefully go back to, we suggest, is to the medium of theatre, and specifically, to the activist theatre of
Bertold Brecht, to resurrect for our use with these new tools, some invaluable, but currently overlooked,
old representational practices. In this presentation, we describe and illustrate the "mise-en-scene" of
digital practice, in order to construe theory as theatre, and to outline a post-critical performative praxis of
digital representation.
Creating Interactive Representations of Student Multimedia Work:
Ethnomultimediography
Brian Reilly
Anthropological methods of ethnography, especially those applied to learning contexts (Erickson, 1984;
Florio-Ruane, 1989; Flower, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wolcott, 1995) as well as more recent theories
of activity theory as applied to technology use (Nardi, 1996b) emphasize the importance of understanding
context as it relates to learning and technology use. Schools and classrooms are communities where
tradition, cultural norms, and social relationships greatly influence what goes on, what gets done, and who
does it. In order to understand and represent the particular learning communities I will discuss in my
presentation, I chose to create interactive multimedia representations of these communities and contexts in
an attempt to more faithfully and fully describe and present what went on in them. I use the term
"ethnomultimediography" to capture this approach to research and representation.
This type of qualitative research includes elements of participant observation, oral history, ethnography,
and case study, and requires some changes in the research process to incorporate multiple media –– print,
video, interactive multimedia –– in the final representations. Discussions of multimedia ethnography
(Goldman-Segall, 1995; Goldman-Segall, 1998) have influenced and informed my research methods as
well.
Using video extensively to record classroom observations and interviews changes the relationship between
the researcher and the research participants, in this case, teachers and students. In contexts where students
themselves are multimedia/video producers, using a video camera can be less of an intrusion than it might
be elsewhere, but it is still an intrusion, as student work is not generally documented in this way. One
research tradition, that of subject anonymity, presents a challenge when the faces and voices of the
participants form much of the content of the multimedia research report, but by making the participants
aware of the research goals from the outset and treating their words and work with respect can make the
absence of anonymity a strength rather than a limitation.
In my presentation, I will briefly show examples of digital video incorporated into multimedia
representations of research on student multimedia work. I will discuss how these representations change
our understanding of the learning communities they are drawn from, and how the process of creating
them affects the researcher and the "researched".
References
Florio-Ruane, S. (1989). Social organization of classes and schools (IP 89-2): National Center for Research on
Teacher Learning.
Flower, L. (1989). Studying cognition in context: Introduction to the study (Technical Report 21): Center for the
Study of Writing and Literacy.
Goldman-Segall, R. (1998). Points of viewing children's thinking: A digital ethnographer's journey. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goldman-Segall, R. (1995). Configurational validity: A proposal for analyzing ethnographic narratives. Journal for
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4 (2), 163–182.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Wolcott, H. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
Nardi, B. (1996a). Activity theory and human-computer interaction. In B. Nardi (Ed.), Context and consciousness:
Activity theory and human-computer interaction. Cambridge: MIT Press.
A Reporting Simulation Using Toolbook
Kerry Grant
For a number of reasons, computer simulation of news reporting assignments provides significant
benefits. The computer environment allows beginning students to gain much needed practice in the task of
accurate note taking from both face-to-face and telephone interviews, without the anxiety induced by the
need to ask for information from strangers who may not always be cooperative. Furthermore, the instructor
need not continually depend on the goodwill of local sources of news as each new group of students goes
through the learning process. "Newsroom" is a work in progress which aims to provide novice newswriters
with a convincing simulation of the news gathering process, from initial assignment to completed story.
The student can ask questions and take notes from filmed responses or from telephone "conversations"
initiated either by the student or by sources. Interviews can be recorded for quote checking when deadline
pressures permit.
Evaluating collaborative telelearning scenarios:
A sociocultural perspective
Frode Guribye & Barbara Wasson
Department of Information Science
University of Bergen
N-5020 Bergen, NORWAY
Frode.Guribye@ifi.uib.no Barbara.Wasson@ifi.uib.no
Introduction
In this paper we discuss work in progress by describing the conceptual framework we are using to identify patterns of
collaboration in collaborative telelearning scenarios within the Norwegian project DoCTA [1]. Project DoCTA focuses on
the design and use of artefacts in collaborative telelearning scenarios aimed at teacher training. Various scenarios utilising
the Internet are used to engage the students in collaborative learning activities. An ongoing exploratory study is analysing
four different scenarios.
In the first scenario, a pilot study is analysing the use of Teamwave Workplace [2] for collaborative activities in a graduate
university course [3] at the University of Bergen (UiB). The next two scenarios involve European inter-cultural simulations
where the goal is to design a textual artefact (such as a treaty or policy statement). In IDEELS [4] teams of Norwegian
students at UiB and Nord-Trøndelag College (HiNT) collaborate with teams in Germany, Spain and France to develop a
treaty. In Demeter [5] Parliament, Norwegian students at Stord/Haugesund College (Stord) collaborate with students from 13
countries to contribute solutions to contemporary problems facing the European community. In VisArt, a fourth scenario
being designed, developed and deployed for use between Norwegian educational institutions, the goal is to design a visual
artefact to be used in teaching a subject of choice. In this scenario, teams will comprise students from the three Norwegian
participating educational institutions (UiB, HiNT and Stord).
Collaboration Patterns
From a research perspective, the exploratory study being carried out within DoCTA will provide us with insight into the
processes of collaboration enabling us to identify collaboration patterns and further our understanding of how instructors,
students and other learning facilitators organise their learning and work.
The community of study includes teachers, learners and facilitators participating in the various collaborative telelearning
scenarios. The main research question has been formulated to ask how these students, teachers and facilitators organise their
learning and work given the different scenarios. The four collaborative telelearning scenarios vary with respect to:
• actor characteristics (e.g., within a common community vs. disparate and divergent cultural backgrounds; similar
knowledge and preparation vs. different knowledge and preparation; etc.),
• aspects of the learning activity (e.g., text based vs. visually based; well-defined learning tasks and goals vs. ill-
structured tasks and goals; etc.),
• the kinds of artefacts they have access to (e.g., the artefacts provided in the various internet environments[6]), and
• the kinds of artefacts they are to design (e.g., textual or visual)
Conceptual approach
The underlying conceptual framework adopted in this research is taken from three different, although closely interrelated
approaches, namely: activity theory (Leontev, 1978, Engeström 1987), distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1995), and situated
action (Suchman, 1987, Lave, 1988, Mantovani, 1996). One of the goals of this research is to argue that, together, these
approaches make up a rich framework for describing, evaluating and analysing collaborative telelearning scenarios. All three
approaches underscore the need to look at real activities in real situations (Nardi, 1996, our italics), and always, in some
way, include the context in studies of human activity.
The rationale for combining these three approaches as the conceptual foundation of this study, is that they all fall under what
is called a sociocultural perspective (Wertsch, del Río & Alvarez, 1995), that highlights learning and thinking as
phenomenon that can not be studied in isolation. Rather, they are complex processes situated or distributed in an
[1]
http://www.ifi.uib.no/docta/
[3]
http://www.ifi.uib.no/staff/barbara/courses/host98.html
[4]
http://ftp.uni-bremen.de/wwwgast/fzhb/ideels/public_html/index.html
[5]
http://hugin.hsh.no/prosjekt/demeter/index.htm
[6]
E.g., in IDEELS the artefacts they have access to include their own email system, Teamwave Workplace, and OPUSi a
web-based conferencing system developed at the University of Bremen, Germany.
environment — it is impossible to separate them from the context in which they occur. The different approaches each
emphasise slightly different elements of the framework that is important to be aware of in these kinds of studies. Situated
action emphasises the emergent, contingent nature of human activity, the way activity grows directly out of the
particularities of a given situation (Nardi, 1996). Distributed cognition on the other hand, asserts as a unit of analysis a
cognitive system composed of individuals and the artefacts they use (Hutchins, 1991, Nardi, 1996). This approach
underscores the distributed nature of cognitive processes, and the role that different artefacts play in these processes. Activity
theory also emphasises the mediating role of artefacts, but stresses that these artefacts carry with them a particular culture
and history, thus, focuses on the institutional and cultural elements involved in the learning activity (Kuutti, 1996). Adoption
of these approaches provides a strong and fruitful conceptual framework that informs the evaluation of collaboration patterns
in collaborative telelearning scenarios.
Evaluation approach
The evaluation aims at a naturalistic study of how participants in collaborative telelearning organise their work and learning
activities. Ethnography (e.g. Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983) influences the design of our evaluation approach including the
choice of data collection (e.g., participant observations, unstructured interviews, video recordings) and analysis techniques
(e.g., discourse analysis, video analysis). This means that the evaluation is an iterative process where an ongoing analysis
guides the data collection emphasis in successive phases.
In order to collect data about the activities that the students engage in during their participation in the scenarios, different
methods and techniques will be used. The most important sources of information will be derived from observing the students
as they collaborate and interviewing them, and also from electronic logging of artefacts used for collaborating (e.g., email,
shared whiteboards, chats, to-do-lists) and artefacts designed (e.g., a web page) during the collaboration. It is a challenge to
carry out the participant observations since a large number of the students are geographically distributed over Norway thus
direct observation of all the students is unrealistic and too costly. Rather, an alternative technique consisting of immersing
ourselves in the virtual environment in order to observe their activities will be used. For this reason, the electronic data logs
will be an extremely important supplement to the "online" and "offline" observations. The data being logged, is not just
statistical data recording who is logged on when, but includes a periodic chronological recording of all artefacts in the
environment. This means that we can recreate versions of the environment to study the use of artefacts over time and the
creation and development of the artefacts produced in the collaboration process.
Data collected in the fall of 1998 has been analysed and used to inform the data collection in the spring 1999 scenarios. At
EDMEDIA'99 we will be able to provide a preliminary report on our findings.
References
Engeström, Y (1987) Learning By Expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental
research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy
Hammersley, M & Atkinson, P. (1983). Ethnography. Principles in Practice . London : Tavistock
Hutchins, E. (1995) Cognition in the Wild . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hutchins, E. (1991) The social organisation of distributed cognition. In Resnick, L. (Ed.) Perspectives on
Socially Shared Cognition (pp. 238-287). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jonassen, D. & Rohrer-Murphy (1999) Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning
environments. Educational Technology: Research and Development, 47 (1).
Kuutti, K. (1996) Activity theory as a Potential framework for human-computer interaction research.
In Nardi, B. A. (ed.) Context and consciousness: Activity theory and human-computer interaction . Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press
Lave, J. (1998) Cognition in Practice . Cambridge University Press.
Leont'ev, A. N. (1978) Activity, Consciousness, Personality . Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mantovani, G (1996) New Communication Environments: From Everyday to Virtual. London:
Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Nardi, B. A. (1996) Studying Context: A comparison of activity theory, situated action models
and distributed cognition. In Nardi, B. A. (Ed.) Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-computer
Interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Suchman, L. (1987). Plans and Situated Action. The problems of human-machine
communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wertsch, J. V., del Río, P. & Alvarez, A. (1995) Sociocultural studies: history, action and mediation.
In Wertsch, J. V., del Río, P. & Alvarez, A. Sociocultural Studies of Mind . Cambridge University Press.
Acknowledgements
DoCTA is funded by The Norwegian Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs (KUF) under their Information
Technology in Education (ITU) programme. It is a collaboration between researchers at the University of Bergen (UiB),
Stord/Haugesund College (Stord), Nord-Trøndelag College (HiNT) and Telenor Research and Development (Telenor FOU).
Authoring and Maintaining of Educational Applications on The Web
Denis Helic
Institute for Information Processing and Computer Supported New Media (IICM), Graz University of
Technology Graz, Austria
e-mail: dhelic@iicm.edu
Hermann Maurer
Institute for Information Processing and Computer Supported New Media (IICM), Graz University of
Technology Graz, Austria
e-mail: hmaurer@iicm.edu
Nick Scherbakov
Institute for Information Processing and Computer Supported New Media (IICM), Graz University of
Technology Graz, Austria
e-mail: nsherbak@iicm.edu
Abstract: The presented paper clarifies the current situation at the field of the authoring and
maintaining of educational applications on the Web. The paper lists well-known problems
concerning the design of educational applications in general, as well as specific problems
connected with educational applications meant to be published on the Web. Some comparison
of widely used methods for authoring and maintaining of educational applications on the Web
is, on the hand of method's advantages and disadvantages, presented as well. Thus, we
propose a new approach to this specific problematic, that we believe, solves a number of
problems related to the theme. This new approach to the authoring and maintaining of
educational applications on the Web is based on the concept of hypermedia composites, so
this concept we explain in details.
1. Introduction
An educational application can be seen as a special kind of a database system whose data contains some
educational material. In modern educational applications the educational material is always presented using
different types of media, such as text, graphics, animations, video, audio, and so on, i.e. an educational
application is actually a kind of a multimedia database system. Further, an educational application has to insure a
unique and non-sequential method of accessing information, and that leads us to the comprehension of the
educational application as a special kind of a hypermedia system. The essential feature of a node-link model
hypermedia system are documents nodes ( HTML documents ) and links. Documents can contain text, graphics,
audio, video, animation, and images while links connect nodes related in a certain manner. It is the linking
capability which allows the non-linear organisation of text. Currently, many organisations consider using
hypermedia as an advanced educational media. Such educational hypermedia databases containing hundreds of
documents are normally referred to as WWW educational applications.
The comprehension and general quality of an educational application in general, and a WWW
educational application in particular, depends on the reader's ability to construct a coherent mental representation
of the educational information. It is the author's responsibility to ensure the construction of the database as a
coherent entity. The construction of a coherent hypermedia databases can be considered to be a design problem.
There are no established guidelines for authoring such databases. Going beyond such well-known
recommendations that a hypermedia database should consist of the following three components - the content
part, the organisational part, and the presentation part.
Normally, authoring of a WWW educational application is carried out on a local authoring site, where a
big number of HTML documents are created using such an easy to use WYSIWYG authoring environment as
MS Front Page or Netscape Page Composer. After creating a sufficient number of documents they are
interrelated by means of computer navigable links and the whole course is uploaded into a Web server where it
becomes available for remote access.
While problem of authoring HTML documents got a scrutiny, and there even exists a number of
solutions implemented as so-called HTML Editing Systems, the problem of navigating, or more precisely, of
authoring of a convenient navigable structure helping users to construct a coherent mental representation of the
educational information, does not attract much attention.
Actually, when a particular author deals with creating hypermedia links (i.e. with imposing of a
navigable structure on a top of a big number of HTML documents), this task is far from being a trivial one. First
of all, educational applications are considered to be rather big ones. Further they are also heavily structured.
It is interesting to note that HTML authoring software generally do not use HTML tags as an authoring
paradigm. Such authoring systems normally use a publishing logical model, where an author can place objects
on a particular position, cut and paste fragments of arbitrary complexity, etc., At the same time, link editing still
follows the most primitive node-link paradigm.
Obviously, decreasing of a interrelating complexity of a big number of HTML documents can be done
via the usage of some powerful logical linking model ( such as Hyperwave data model or HM-data model ). This
model should provide another logical view to hundreds of documents which should be interrelated, and thus
make authoring considerable easier and even error-proven. But if we try to investigate all advantages and
disadvantages when using some new logical data model in the authoring of educational applications, we see that
such usage beside advantages, such as: considerably simpler authoring, support for referential integrity, to
mention only the important ones has also a number of disadvantages. The disadvantages can be classified as
follows: - authors need to learn a new data model, i.e. sometimes it needs a months to know all the facilities of a
system supporting a new logical data model - the models support only primitive data structuring elements - the
models do not reflect particular features of an application and still require tedious authoring.
Once, an educational application has been created, an author publishes it on the Web, i.e. the author
uploads the educational application on a Web server. In the opposite to the authoring of WWW educational
applications, which is done on a local site, the maintaining of WWW educational applications is mostly done on
the server site, i.e. online. Of course, that in the case of some big changes that have to be performed on a WWW
educational application an author can download the WWW educational application as a whole, modify it on a
local site and then upload it once more, but that would rarely be the case, rather these changes are small and
consist mostly of deletion or inserting of a small number of documents. But even in this simplest case the
maintaining of WWW educational applications is connected with big problems. Let us here mention only few of
them. If the node-link model has been used to prepare and publish a WWW educational application, i.e. the
WWW educational application has been uploaded on a standard Web ( HTTP ) server the deletion of a document
means also editing of all HTML documents pointing to the deleted one. In the case of the inserting of a HTML
document we have the same problem. The usage of another, better structured, logical model can solve integrity
and link consistency problems, but it has also earlier mentioned disadvantages.
Thus, we think that a new approach to the authoring and maintaining of educational applications on the
Web should be introduced. We propose the concept of a hypermedia composites, that we believe solve a number
of problems mentioned before.
Hypermedia composites should be seen as a higher level of hypermedia authoring. The hypermedia
composite represents a collection of multimedia documents and/or other hypermedia composites. It has some
internal navigational structure, that can be defined. The visualisation of a hypermedia composite can also be
defined in desirable way. The hypermedia composite can be so organised that it full fills all needed aspects of a
particular educational application. The data model which is the concept of hypermedia composites based upon
could be classified as the semantic data model.
The semantic data models introduce purpose-oriented data structure types suitable for a particular
application. These semantic data types with its navigational structure and its visualisation mechanism, as well
with the data modification operations are defined using a well defined Data Definition Language ( DDL ) and
Data Modification Language ( DML ) and are produced by the data administrator on the demand of an author. In
this way an author can concentrate on the production of comprehend and convenient educational applications, so
he can see the authoring process as in the first hand a design and not as a technical problem.
Each hypermedia composite can be mapped to a widely used hypermedia logical data model, in this
way it could be uploaded on a Web server, and what is very important an inverse map can be performed, so the
maintaining of a hypermedia composite, from an author point of view, does not differ from the authoring.
2. Hypermedia Composite
The hypermedia composite is a basic concept of what we called Hypermedia Composite Data Model.
The Hypermedia Composite Data Model insures higher level of authoring and maintaining of educational
applications on the Web. As object-oriented programming languages insure higher level of data abstraction then
the procedural programming languages do, so the Hypermedia Composite Data Model gives us the possibility to
define many different "classes" of educational applications, that will best match with the requirements of a
particular application. Each "class" of educational applications has the predefined navigational structure and the
visualisation paradigm. An author's task is to choose the best "class" of educational applications for his particular
needs, then to construct a number of instances of this educational application class and fill it with HTML
documents. It is a task of a data administrator to produce "classes" of educational applications on specific
demand of an author.
As we mentioned before the hypermedia composite is the main construct of the proposed model. Here
we distinguish between two terms: the hypermedia composite unit ( HC unit ) and the hypermedia composite
type ( HC type ). An HC unit represents a collection of HTML documents and/or other HC units, which are
called members henceforth. Here we can draw a line of equivalency between an HC unit and an educational
application, because an HC unit in the Hypermedia Composite Data Model is an educational application.
An HC unit can be treated in two ways. One way is the manipulation of the HC unit, i.e. an author can create a
new HC unit, insert members into it, delete already existing members, save ( publish onto a Web server) the HC
unit, and so on.
The second way to treat an HC unit is to access it on the Web and to browse its content. This means that
each HC unit, additionally, encapsulates a special navigational paradigm, i.e. computer-navigable links between
members of the HC unit. As can be expected of a hypermedia system, whenever an user accesses such HC unit
with an ordinary Web browser, it is visualised in a form of interrelated HTML pages. The concept can be
explained with a simple example ( Figure 1 ).
Figure 1: Hypermedia Composite Unit = Educational Application on the Web
Consider a hypermedia system that contains course modules. A set of nodes presenting information on a
certain topic, can be joined together to form a conceptual group - an HC unit "Course with a given name". Thus
the HC unit in question would contain HTML documents ( members ) - "title page", "abstract", "referential
material", etc. Moreover, it might contain even other HC units presenting chapters units.
We can now generalise a number of HC units having the same navigational structure to a concept of the
hypermedia composite type. A hypermedia composite type ( HC type ) is a meta definition of a specific linking
structure which is automatically supported by all instances, i.e. HC units, of this type. It can be seen as an
abstract data type and in the analogy to the programming languages as a class of objects. In this way we consider
any HC unit as an instance of a particular HC type. Here we can say that an HC unit represents a class of similar
educational applications, i.e. it is a template for the creation and manipulation of educational applications.
Thus we can say that a HC type automatically impose a particular navigable structure on the top of
collection of existing HTML pages r other HC units defined as members of a HC unit. For example we can
define an HC type "Course" ( Figure 2 ).
Figure 2: Hypermedia Composite Type = Class of Educational Applications
Any instance of this type is an HC unit consisting of HTML documents ( or other HC units ) labelled as:
"Content", "Abstract", "Chapters" or "References". The term "labelled" deserves an additional discussion since it
is very important concept of HC types.
In fact, members of an HC unit play essentially different roles when such unit is accessed or browsed by
users. In our particular case, users might expect that: - the document "Content" is shown and provide references
to all "Chapters" whenever they access the course; - any "Chapter" is provided with references to the "next" and
"prior" "Chapters"; - "Chapters" are automatically provided with a number of "References" for further diting, etc.
These "labels" are used by the mapping mechanism in order to get the proper visualisation of an HC
unit when it is accessed or browsed, For example if an HC unit is to be mapped onto the Hyperwave logical data
model, most probably "labels" will be mapped into the attributes of a Hyperwave object, so they can be later
interpreted in the proper way. More on this topic in the following chapters let us now go back to the concept of
HC types.
Practically speaking, we can perceive an HC type as a special template consisting of a number of cells.
Each cell represent a member ( a set of members ) having identical properties. Similarly an HC unit might be
seen as an HC type template filled with existing HTML documents and/or other existing HC units.
Thus, from an author point of view, there is a number of predefined templates ( HC types ) where the
author can simply insert existing pages or other HC units to define sophisticated navigable structure. Of course if
an author has in the mind a special linking structure that has not been defined yet, he can ask a WBT
administrator to create an HC type, i.e. an HC type template that comprises wished linking structure.
In the following chapter we present an implementation of the proposed model which is a running
project on the Institute for Information Processing and Computer Supported New Media, called the Structure
Editor.
3. Structure Editor Architecture and Components
The Structure Editor is a system implementing proposed Hypermedia Composite Data Model. The
system is used for the authoring and maintaining educational applications on the Web. It treats educational
applications as HC units which can be created, manipulated, uploaded onto a Web server, maintained on the
server and so on. It also provides a data administrator with the tools for the definition of HC types, i.e. templates
for the creation of different educational applications. Let us now look closely on the architecture of Structure
Editor and its components.
The Structure Editor consists of the following functional components ( see Figure 3 ):
Figure 3: Structure Editor Components
• Visual Data Definition Tool ( VDDT ) provides a convenient way for defining HC types, i.e. templates for
different educational applications. The definition of HC types means the definition of topology of templates,
functionality and properties of individual cells, a specific linking structure which is inherited by all instances
of this type, i.e. by all educational applications produced with this template.
• Visual Data Manipulation Tool ( VDMT ) provides a convenient way for automatic generation of a
navigational structure of an educational application by means of inserting/removing elements into/from HC
type template, saving such units on a Web browser ( it could be a standard Web server or a Hyperwave
server, i.e. the mapping mechanism will upload an educational application in the proper way ) or on a local
drive and further editing, maintaining of the existing HC units, i.e. educational applications.
• Server Site Script/Remote Applet are special programs which visualise a particular educational application
as a collection of interrelated HTML documents.
The Visual Data Definition Tool is a stand-alone Java application working with a special HCT file
containing the definition of a HC type. It can create new and edit existing HCT file residing on a local drive.
The Visual Data Manipulation Tool is a stand-alone Java application working with an existing HCT
file, HTML pages and existing HC units, i.e. educational applications. It can create new and edit existing
educational applications residing on a Web server or on a local drive. The main way of authoring and
maintaining such educational applications is dragging and dropping existing HTML documents, MM elements
and/or HC units onto a selected template. HTML documents can be created with an arbitrary other editing
system and must be in a valid HTML format. Additionally, the structure editor provides a possibility to generate
valid HTML documents on the fly using so-called Macros defined as a part of the HC type definition.
The VDMT allows to combine pages and existing educational applications into a new educational
application by means of the following operations:
• drag and drop objects into a template cell
• delete an object from a template cell
• change a relative position within a template cell
• set up particular member attributes ( see Figure 4 )
Figure 4: Working with the VDMT
A newly created educational application can be stored, i.e. mapped on a Hyperwave server, a standard
HTTP Web server or on a local drive. Storing an educational application to a particular hypermedia system
means providing it with some additional attributes specific to the chosen system. For example if an educational
application is stored on a Hyperwave server, it is stored as a Hyperwave collection having a number of additional
attributes which are automatically assigned by the VDMT. Members of the HC unit are defined as members of
the corresponding Hyperwave collection and also automatically provided with specific set of attributes.
An educational application can be also stored on a local drive or on an ordinary Web server as a directory in a
file system containing a number of additional attribute files which are automatically generated by the VDMT.
Members of the HC unit are also put into the corresponding folder along with automatically generated attribute
files and a special navigational applets interpreting the attribute files.
As stated earlier user's Web browsers ( like Netscape or Microsoft InternetExplorer ) do not access
directly an educational application. Instead, in order to obtain data, the browser communicates with a special
Sever Site Script ( if the educational application resides on a Hyperwave server ) or with a special Java applet ( if
the educational application resides on a standard HTTP Web server or on a local drive ).
Figure 5: Saving an Educational Application on a Hyperwave Server
In other words, whenever an user accesses such educational application with an ordinary Web browser a
special software component is run to visualise the unit in the form of interrelated HTML pages. The HCT file
containing a description of the generic link structure and attributes attached to the educational application's
members are essentially used to control such visualisation ( see Figure 6 ).
Figure 6: Accessing an Educational Application
4. Conclusion
Here, we would like to conclude that the proposed combination of Hypermedia Composite data model with
Hyperwave data model in order to decrease effort for authoring and maintaining educational applications for the
Web has much bigger possibilities then the described use. It can be very useful for different kinds of hypermedia
systems. The power of this concept comes from the highly structured hypermedia composites that can be created
with Hypermedia Composite data model. Of course that Hypermedia Composite data model has to be mapped
onto a logical data model to show all its possibilities so we believe that its use should not only depend on
Hyperwave data model, but rather it should try to use other powerful data models, such as XML. XML
technology allows the author to define the constructs, i.e. the structure of hypermedia database, as well as the
navigational and visualisation paradigm. Hypermedia Composite data model on the other hand allows the author
to automatically and rapidly create predefined structures.
5. References
1. Hermann Maurer (1996), Hyperwave – The Next Generation Web Solution , Addison-Wesley
2. Denis Helic, Seid Maglajlic, Nick Sherbakov (1999), Educational Materials on The Web: Data Modelling
Approach, MIPRO 99
3. D. Freismuth, K. Schmaranz, B. Zwantschko (1998), Telematic Platform for Patient Oriented Services, JUCS,
vol. 11, 1998
4. Microsoft Online XML Workshop (1998), http://www.microsoft.com/xml , Microsoft Corp. Homepage
Webfuse: an Integrated, Eclectic Web Authoring Tool
David Jones
Faculty of Informatics and Communication
Central Queensland University
Australia
d.jones@cqu.edu.au
Introduction
Webfuse is an authoring tool for the World-Wide Web designed and constructed at Central Queensland
University to aid in the development of Web-based learning (Jones and Buchanan, 1996). Webfuse has been used in
the construction and maintenance of numerous websites for online learning and commercial purposes
(http://www.broncos.com.au/). It is currently the primary web authoring platform for the Faculty of Informatics and
Communication of Central Queensland University and is used by almost 100 staff to maintain a Web site with over
150 units and over 100,000 separate web pages.
A University developing a system for the support of online learning is not new with systems such as
WebCT (http://www.webct.com/webct) having similar origins. In fact, a number of Webfuse's characteristics are
similar to these other systems. While this paper briefly describes these familiar characteristics it concentrates on the
features of Webfuse which differ from similar tools. In particular it will examine how Webfuse draws on the lessons
gathered from the fields of hypermedia and operating systems to arrive at a structure which attempts to ease the
authoring bottleneck while providing the extensibility and adaptability required to keep up with the Web.
The Familiar Characteristics of Webfuse
Three familiar characteristics of Webfuse include: being server-based, offering server and client platform
indpendence and providing the standard functionality required of a Web-based learning system. A Web-browser is
the only authoring tool required to use Webfuse. The browser provides the interface between the user and the
collection of CGI scripts and other software residing on a Web server that provide all of Webfuse's functionality.
Why Webfuse is Different:
The major differences between Webfuse and other systems are the use of hypermedia templates and an
eclectic and integrated structure. The following section describes the importance of these differences.
Web authoring is usually carried out without a defined process, lacks suitable tool support, does little to
separate content, structure and appearance (Coda et al, 1998), makes limited reuse of previous work (Rossi et al,
1997) and requires better group access mechanisms and online editing tools (Andrews, 1996). The difficulty of
authoring on the Web often leads to the management of content for a web site being assigned to one person who
becomes the bottleneck for maintenance (Thimbleby, 1997). This can be a major problem in online learning where
simple, rapid and cheap maintenance of a site is essential for its on-going usefulness.
Hypermedia templates (Catlin and Garret, 1991) are an approach to simplifying the authoring process while
still ensuring the application of good information design principles. Hypermedia templates enable content experts to
be responsible for maintaining Websites and thus increases ownership, decreases costs and addresses the authoring
bottleneck problem. Hypermedia templates also aid in reuse which is a strategic tool for reducing the cost and
improving the quality of hypermedia design and development (Nanard, Nanard and Kahn, 1998).
It was recognised from the start of the Webfuse project that it would not be possible for a small collection
of part-time individuals to build and maintain a Web authoring tool. Not only would the amount of work required to
initially construct a useful system be onerous but a much larger task would be to continue upgrading the system in
response to changing requirements and changes in the Web.
To address this problem Webfuse draws on the micro-kernel architecture approach used in many modern
operating systems. The advantages of the micro-kernel approach include a more modular system structure and a
system which is more flexible and tailorable (Liedtke, 1995).
The Webfuse "kernel" is a collection of abstractions and services including authentication, access control,
HTML validation, presentation and data storage. These abstractions and services are drawn upon by a collection of
hypermedia templates and other higher level services which are used by authors to develop web sites.
At any time a new hypermedia template can be written to provide Webfuse with added functionality. New
templates generally wrap around new software or technology (e.g. a Java based chat room, a Web-based mailing list
manager etc) as it becomes available. It is significantly easier to create a new hypermedia template than to create the
software from scratch.
Usually the use of a large collection of software created by different people would increase the authoring
complexity due to the large amount of variety and duplication in user interfaces. Webfuse addresses this problem via
the Webfuse "kernel" which provides a single common administrative interface used by all hypermedia templates.
The "kernel" integrates the eclectic templates behind a common interface.
All of the existing Webfuse hypermedia templates are written around either existing open source software
(e.g. MHonarc, Ewgie, WebBBS) or applications written specifically for use at CQU (e.g. an assignment submission
tied to CQU's student database system). The hypermedia template approach allows the quick integration of most
Web-based software into a common management framework. The eclectic and integrated approach has been
particularly useful in allowing Webfuse to draw on the large collection of open source software for the Web. This
ability to use almost any open source software has further increased the ability of Webfuse to adapt to changes and
provide additional functionality.
Conclusions
The creation and management of Websites is a difficult task which can suffer from a bottleneck as
authoring responsibility is restricted to a few individuals. Hypermedia templates are an approach which allow
content experts to become responsible for creating and managing websites. Webfuse uses hypermedia templates to
ease the authoring bottleneck. Hypermedia templates, in conjunction with a collection of support services, also
enable Webfuse to have an integrated and eclectic structure which enables it to adapt quickly to changes in
requirements and the Web.
References
Andrews, K. (1996). Applying hypermedia research to the World Wide Web, Workshop on Hypermedia Research and the World
Wide Web, Hypertext'96 Conference, Washington, [http://www.iccm.edu/apphrweb].
Catlin, K.S. and Garret, L.N. (1991). Hypermedia Templates: An Authors Tool, Proceedings of Hypertext'91, ACM, 147-160.
Coda, F., Ghezzi, C., Vigna, G. and Garzotto, F. (1998). Towards a Software Engineering Approach to Web Site Development,
Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Software Specification and Design, Isobe, Japan
Jones, D. and Buchanan, R. (1996). The Design of an Integrated Online Learning Environment. Making New Connections.
Proceedings of ASCILITE'96. Christie, A., James, P. and Vaughan, B. (eds), pp 331-345
Liedtke, J. (1995). On Micro-Kernel Construction. Operating Systems Review. 29(5), pp 237-250.
Nanard, M., Nanard, J. and Kahn, P. (1998). Pushing reuse in hypermedia design: golden rules, design patterns and constructive
templates, Proceedings of the 9th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, ACM Press, 11-20.
Rossi, G., Schwabe, D. and Garrido, A. (1997). Design reuse in hypermedia applications development, Proceedings of the 8th
ACM conference on Hypertext, ACM Press, 57-66.
Thimbleby, H. (1997). Distributed Web Authoring, Proceedings of WebNet'97, Association for the Advancement of Computing
in Education, 1056-1083.
Cognitive Tools and their Design Implications for the Interactive Hypermedia
Instructional Program: HIV/AIDS Prevention Education for Women of Color
Heather A. Katz, Doctoral Candidate: Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Texas at Austin,
USA, hakatz@mail.utexas.edu
1. Overview
The purpose of this interactive hypermedia instructional program (HIV and AIDS Prevention Education for
Women of Color) is to provide women of color HIV and AIDS facts and the skills to protect against contracting
HIV. Both the research of (Park and Hannafin 93) and (Park 95) serve as the theoretical framework for the
development of the program, which mirrors Park and Hannafin's twenty guidelines for the design of interactive
multimedia. Additionally, Park's research was applied to the development of the program's cognitive tools—the
function of the individual cognitive tools in the hypermedia program were designed to be analogous to the
function of specific self-regulated learning strategies (SRLS). Additionally, both the interface design and
content are tailored for African and Latina American women (e.g., culturally appropriate graphics, video, and
language) and their unique circumstances surrounding HIV and AIDS. Literature, audio, and video acquired
from the United States' Centers for Disease Control HIV and AIDS prevention initiative were used to develop
the instructional content. Macromedia Authorware was used to develop the interactive hypermedia
instructional program.
2. Theoretical Background
Several empirical studies have reported (a) significant gains in learner performance (Borsook &
Higginbotham-Wheat 92, Crosby & Stelovsky 95, Frey & Simonson 93); (b) increased course completion rate
(Hardiman & Williams 90); (c) decreased demand on teaching time (Higgins & Boone 92); and (d) a positive
attitude toward hypermedia instruction (Janda 92). Thus, when hypermedia is grounded in research and
integrated with instruction it has the following five potentials: (1) provides rich and realistic contexts for
multichannel learning; (2) Ability to access information non-linearly; (3) focuses learner attention on the
relationship of facts and multiple perspectives of information; (4) encourages active, student-centered learning;
and (5) promotes collaborative learning (Ambrose 91, Nelson & Palumbo 92, Yang & Moore 95-6).
Using the aforementioned hypermedia characteristics, the HIV/AIDS Prevention Education for Woman of
Color program provides the opportunity to immerse oneself in the program's content via a multifaceted learning
environment. It incorporates text, graphics, video, sound, animation, and linkage between nodes of
information. However, the development of effective hypermedia instruction must be based on theoretical and
empirical research.
The proceeding explains how this interactive hypermedia program is grounded in research. First, are two
examples of how this interactive hypermedia program integrates the research of (Park & Hannafin 93) and the
implications for the design of interactive multimedia:
1.
"The program's cognitive tools (bookmark, find, glossary, help, notepad, and program map) exemplify
the guideline to "embed structural aids to facilitate selection, organization, and integration."
2.
"The program's instructional modules and sub-modules support both "layering of information to
accommodate multiple levels of complexity and accommodate differences," and the "organization of
lesson segments into internally consistent idea units" (p.68).
The following exemplifies how learning strategy research was applied to the design of the cognitive tools
and discusses their analogous relationship. SRLS represent actions and processes that learners implement
during achievement situations. Such actions and processes are "directed at acquiring information or skill that
involve agency, purpose, and instrumentality perceptions by learners. SRLS include organizing and
transforming information, self-consequating, seeking information, and rehearsing or using memory aids"
(Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons 88, p.329). Similar to SRLS within traditional learning environments are
cognitive tools (e.g., bookmark, find, glossary, help, notepad, and program map) within interactive hypermedia
learning environments.
Cognitive tools can act as structural aids to assist learners in managing new information. Research has
reported that cognitive tool use during computer-assisted instruction can assist learners to construct knowledge
and support cognitive processes, such as memory and monitoring one's learning experience, and allow learners
to engage in otherwise unattainable cognitive activities (Lajoie 93). Hence, the function of cognitive tools
within hypermedia environments is analogous to the function of SRLS within traditional learning
environments—they assist learners to acquire, process, and comprehend information.
The cognitive tools that are available in this program (i.e., bookmark, find, glossary, help, notepad, and
program map) are mirrored after the functions of select effective SRLS. The notepad can be used for
summarization and note taking, and the program map serves as an advance organizer—three strongly effective
strategies. For example, one activity requires the learner to construct a "virtual" poster that represents her
attitudes and beliefs concerning each module topic at the onset of each respective module instruction. This task
requires the learner to use the notepad to gather/organize her thoughts concerning the respective module topic.
Upon completion of each module, the learner is asked to reassess her poster and notes, referencing information
from the modules that she has completed. Then, she is given the opportunity for additions to or subtractions
from her poster—a chance to redesign the poster/reorganize her thoughts.
Additionally, the program map (overview of modules and sub-modules) acts as an advance organizer with
pop-up information that tells the learner what to expect in each module. The advance organizer also reminds
users what modules and sub modules they have completed, and which ones they have not visited. This can help
students to integrate new material into their existing cognitive structure.
3. Conclusion
In sum, hypermedia programs that embed cognitive tools grounded in research can provide learners with
actions and processes to prevent information decay. Such assistance can complement cognitive processes and
reduce the complexity of the information-processing task (Park & Hannafin 93). The interactive hypermedia
instructional program HIV and AIDS Prevention Education for Women of Color provides: (a) empirically and
theoretically grounded cognitive tools to ensure effective learning within hypermedia environments; and (b)
women of color an opportunity gain a wealth of knowledge from a culturally tailored instructional environment.
4. References
Abrams, A., & Streit, L. (1986). Effectiveness of interactive video in teaching basic photography. T.H.E. Journal ,
14(2), 92-96.
Borsook, T. K., & Higginbotham-Wheat, N. (1992). A psychology of hypermedia: A conceptual framework for R & D.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology , Washington,
D.C.
Crosby, M. E., & Stelovsky, J. (1995). From multimedia instruction to multimedia evaluation. Journal of Educational
Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(2/3), 147-162.
Frey, D., & Simonson, M. (1993). Assessment of cognitive style to examine students' use of hypermedia within historic
costume. Home Economics Research Journal , 21(4), 403-421.
Hardiman, B., & Williams, R. (1990). Teaching developmental mathematics: The interactive video approach. T.H.E.
Journal, 17, 154-159.
Higgins, K., & Boone, R. (1992). Hypermedia computer study guides: Adapting a Canadian history text. Social
Education, 56(3), 154-159.
Janda, K. (1992). Multimedia in political science: Sobering lessons from a teaching experiment. Journal of Educational
Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(341-354).
Jones, L. L., & Smith, S. G. (1989). Lights, camera, reactions! The interactive videodisc: A tool for teaching chemistry.
T.H.E. Journal, 16, 78-85.
Lajoie, S. P. (1993). Computer environments as cognitive tools for enhancing learning. In S. P. Lajoie & S. J. Derry
(Eds.), Computers as Cognitive Tools (pp. 261-288). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Nelson, W. A., & Palumbo, D. B. (1992). Learning, instruction, and hypermedia. Journal of Educational Multimedia
and Hypermedia, 1(4), 445-464.
Park, I., & Hannafin, M. J. (1993). Empirically-based guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational
Technology, Research, and Development, 41(3), 63-85.
Park, S. (1995). Implications of learning strategy research for designing computer-assisted instruction. Journal of
Research on Computing in Education, 27(4), 435-456.
Yang, C.-S., & Moore, D. M. (1995-6). Designing hypermedia systems for instruction. Journal of Educational
Technology Systems, 24(1), 3-30.
Tutee's Reflective Thinking of Tutor's Response Produces Monitoring
Michiko Kayashima
Department of Art
Tamagawa University, Japan
kayasima@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp
Toshio Okamoto
The Graduate School of Information Systems
University of Electro-Communications, Japan
okamoto@ai.is.uec.ac.jp
Abstract: This study proposes two elements that were encountered during analysis of
cross-age tutoring investigations. The first is that both learners' questions and tutors'
advice is representative of their externalized metacognitive experiences. The second is
the manner in which interaction between learners and tutors develops the learner's
monitoring abilities. If learners notice differences in meaning in the responses tutors
give to learners' questioning and perform conscious cognition of the tutor's externalized
metacognitive experiences, the learner's reflective thinking caused by the tutor's
responses produces the learner's monitoring as affected by the tutor's criterion.
Introduction
Recently the view of learning has changed from the "transference of knowledge" to
"constructing knowledge through interaction with the external world including others". Traditionally
teachers have been about the task of transferring their knowledge. The important concern for the teacher
was the organization of knowledge so those learners could learn effectively. However, the new view of
learning considers that learners construct knowledge by their own processes through evaluation and
improvement of their own knowledge. Concurrently they are learning how to learn as well.
Under the new view of learning, many researchers focus on the role of others in the external
world. They have tried to practice collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is defined as learners
working on a task together. However it is yet unclear whether collaboration improves learning. There is
some research supporting the view that low achievers progressively become passive while collaborating
with high achievers (Mulyran 1992).
A number of researchers in cognitive science have proposed reasons as to why collaborative
learning is more efficient than learning alone. The aim of the early studies of collaborative learning was to
determine the conditions under which collaborative learning is efficient. Experiments were conducted to
answer the question: "Under what conditions is collaborative learning efficient?" rather than "Which
interactions occur under which conditions" or "What kind of effects do these interactions cause?" They
have considered conditions such as the composition of the group, the features of the task, the context of
collaboration and so on. However these conditions were very complicated and inter-connected. Thus it
was difficult for researchers to identify the relationship between the conditions and the effects.
Consequently the study of collaborative learning has shifted in focus to the relationship between the
process of collaboration itself and the learning results.
Our focus is on the latter. We envisage how and why interaction in the collaborative process
progresses participants' metacognitive experience on the assumption that collaboration develops
participants' metacognitive experience. This term, metacognitive experience, is based on Nelson and
Narens metacognitive system model of monitoring and control.
Nelson and Narens proposed a metacognitive system model in which they split the cognitive
process into two or more specifically interrelated levels. The most simple metacognitive system model
consists of two interrelated levels; the meta-level and the object-level. Furthermore, the metacognitive
system model has a kind of dominance relationship, which is defined by the direction of the flow of
information; monitoring and control. Monitoring occurs when the meta-level is informed by the object-
level; control occurs when the meta-level modifies the object-level (Nelson & Narens 1994).
In this study, we propose the following two points which were found through analysis of cross-
age tutoring. First we propose that learners' questions and the tutors' responses are representative of their
metacognitive experience. Second we propose in the process of cross-age tutoring that tutors cause the
learners' metacognitive experience to progress.
Section 2 describes the cross-age tutoring practices and representative dialogs. Section 3
illustrates the relationship between learners' questions and tutors' suggestions and their metacognitive
experience. Section 4 delineates the process of the cross-age tutoring that tutors cause the learners'
metacognitive experience to progress.
Cross-age tutoring practice and dialog
First, let us make a distinction between collaboration and cooperation. We cite the following
definition by Roschelle and Teasley (Roschelle & Teasley, 1994).
"Collaboration is a coordinated, synchronous activity that is the result of a continued attempt to
construct and maintain a shared conception of a problem. Cooperation is accomplished by the division
of labor among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem
solving."
We designed a cross-age tutoring situation for use on a computer network between the
Department of Engineering and the Department of Art at Tamagawa University. The 6 senior students
in the Department of Engineering tutored the 34 first year students in the Department of Art. The first
year students had no particular level of computer literacy.
Two tasks were assigned. The first task was to learn new terms that are encountered in
computer science. As examples:
1. RAM: random access memory,
2. ROM, read only memory, and so on.
The second task was for the first year students to create Web Pages to explain their interpretation of the
terms encountered in computer science. Requesting this explanation of terms allowed the students to
engage in furthering constructive knowledge.
This "class" term was for six weeks. In the first task, most students did not understand the terms
encountered. Additionally most students were unable to explain the terms as assigned in the second task.
They required further help from senior students in the Department of Engineering using Bulletin Board
Services [BBS]. Senior students tutored them through the BBS. By using the BBS for their
communications all students were able to have access to all questions and suggestions. The tutors were not
given any specific instructions about how to do their teaching. They were only told to help the first year
students.
The content of the interactions was recorded on the BBS. Following we will show some examples of
natural discourse indicating how knowledge was constructed in cross-age tutoring.
Questions that request information
All university students asked questions that request information such as "What is a modem?" in
the first lesson.
Question 1:
Although we have researched SCSI, we do not understand it. Please explain it to us simply.
Question 2:
Hi, it is hot today. How are you doing? I have researched about floppy disks. However, I have little
knowledge. Please help me. Please explain about floppy disks in words that I can understand.
Question 3:
Let us know about CD-ROMs in simple terms
.
Most students were sure someone would answer their questions and could copy those answers.
Criticism of questions that request information
In answer to these questions that requested information, one tutor gave the following severe
criticism. The tutor was aware of who the learner was who asked the question requesting information on
BBS. In his interview, he criticized her for not trying to answer the question herself. She wanted help too
quickly.
Criticism 1:
Do it yourself. Have you looked it up in books or dictionaries? You should ask questions only after
you've done some research and make your question more specific. Don't ask such vague questions.
Explanation on questions that request information
Another tutor gave a detailed explanation of over three pages.
Explanation 1:
I took note of the severe criticism you received. Concerning SCSI, it means Small Computer Systems
Interface. That is the interface's standard connection between the computer and different devices.
After writing this explanation, this tutor became aware of many questions that requested
information on the BBS. And he remembered that he had requested information two years prior. Thus he
thought he should advise learners on how to ask more specific questions. Then he and the other tutors began
to give the learners their advice.
Advice on questions that request information
Advice 1:
I guess you are confused about how to ask for help. When I was a junior student I asked questions like
yours...You should make clearer the things you are uncertain of when you ask somebody for help. Even
if you ask "Let me know about SCSI", we can not explain it all. It is too vague.
Advice 2:
Hi, you know about CPUs don't you? I don't know for certain what you know about CPUs. I had no
computer literacy either when I was a junior. I know that you asked, "What is a CPU?" However you
should make clear the things you don't know when you ask somebody for help. There are a lot of
magazines about computer literacy and they explain things in simpler terms than many books do. Thus
there are explanations about CPUs in magazines. Please read them. If you have questions after reading
them, I can help you.
Advice 3:
I guess you need to have some fundamental knowledge and to search for one thing at a time. You should
make clear the things you don't know when you ask somebody for help. If you make the uncertain things
clear you will be successful and will enjoy learning. This is my advice as a senior.
Questions that confirm interpretation
In response to this advice, questions that requested information were transformed into questions
that confirmed interpretation. Questions that confirm interpretation are questions that learners ask in order
to confirm their own comprehension.
Question 4:
I suppose that all information is represented as one or zero. If so, is hiragana or katakana
1
represented as
one or zero?
Question 5:
I have researched and come to an understanding of the term "Hard Disk". "Hard Disk" is ÖLet us know
1
Hiragana and katakana are Japanese phonetic alphabets.
more information about it, for example, the merits or the demerits and so on.
Questions, the response and the metacognition
Useful metacognitive experiences may be engendered by communication loosely and broadly
defined. Metacognitive experience may be engendered by paraphrasing, finding examples, or asking
questions about what we have tried to comprehend in order to find out how correctly and fully we have
comprehended it (Flavell 1981). These actions are communicative attempts to talk to ourselves or to
others. Therefore the learners' questions and tutors' responses are related to their metacognitive experience
(Kayashima 1998).
Additionally, Artzt & Armour-Thomas have claimed the difficulty in problem solving may lie in
a student's inability to actively monitor and subsequently regulate the cognitive process engaged in during
problem solving (Artzt & Armour-Thomas 1992). They reported that the group that did not solve the
problem consisted of the members who had the lowest percentage of episodes at the metacognitive level
and highest percentage of episodes at the cognitive level. Based on Flavell's idea mentioned above, we
could rephrase their results as follows: the communication between the members, who belonged to the
group that did not solve the problem, could not engender their metacognitive experiences.
On the contrary, the communication between the members, who belonged to the group that
solved the problem, could engender their metacognitive experiences. Their metacognitive experiences
affected their cognitive objectives and their cognitive actions; thus they were able to solve the problem.
Hence, we try to analyze the learners' questionings and the tutors' responses from the viewpoint
of their metacognitive experience in order to verify how the interactions between learners and tutors
develop their metacognitive experiences.
Questions represent learners' immediate antecedent action of questionings
We categorized learners' questions into "questions that request information" and "questions that
confirm interpretation". Questions that request information are those that ask others to state their
knowledge in a way that the questioner can comprehend effortlessly. For example, "Let us know about..."
These types of questions asked tutors to explain "simply" or "so I can comprehend effortlessly". These
show that learners were aware that they did not have some basic necessary knowledge. In other words,
these questions imply that the immediate antecedent of these questionings could be metacognitive
experience: monitoring, and in particular, awareness.
However, the response of the tutors to questions that requested information caused, in some
cases a transformation of the questions into ones that desired to confirm interpretation. These types of tutor
responses were characterized by criticisms upon learners' cognitive actions and subsequent suggestions
about these same cognitive actions. This transformation implies that learners' predictors of the state of
their understanding transformed from ignorant noncomprehension into a degree of comprehension, though
somewhat untrustworthy, that evidenced growth of constructive knowledge. This is evident because the
questions that confirm interpretation are questions that learners ask in order to confirm their own state of
understanding. For example, one of the students in the study, who engaged in learning about the binary
system, asked the following: "I suppose that all information is represented as one or zero. If so, is hiragana
or katakana represented as one or zero?" The latter questions imply that learners attempted to seek out
criterion that referenced evidence of their comprehension. That is, although the questioners monitored the
state of their understanding, they could not evaluate the trustworthiness. Therefore the immediate
antecedent of these questionings could be also metacognitive experience, i.e. monitoring.
In the above-mentioned questions, the immediate antecedent is monitoring. However, as far as
the criterion referenced evidence of cognitive progress is concerned, the former monitoring is different
from the latter monitoring at a certain level. The former monitoring is evidenced by the learner
performing monitoring functions without the criterion-referenced evidence. The learner attempting to
monitor with criterion-referenced evidence characterizes the latter monitoring. Therefore the latter is at a
higher level than the former. Hence, the latter learner might develop his metacognitive experience.
Tutors' response and their metacognition
We have tried to analyze questions that requested information and the responses of the
tutors. Let us recall the tutors' responses to these questions. These responses were criticisms on
learners' cognitive activities and suggestions for the learners' future cognitive activities. The criticism
of, for example "Do it yourself. Have you looked it up in books or dictionaries?" implies that the
tutor has monitored the learner's cognitive actions through his question and criticized the learner's
insufficient cognitive action. Moreover the suggestions, for example "you should make things you are
uncertain of clearer", shows how the learner should regulate his cognitive actions.
Consequently, tutors' responses are their metacognitive experiences to which learners' cognitive
actions provided input or which can exert influence on learners' cognitive actions. As learners
develop a conscious cognition of the tutors' responses, these responses can be exhibited in the
learners' externalized metacognitive experiences.
Communication and the development of metacognition
We now consider how the communication between learners and tutors develops learners'
metacognitive experiences.
Although learners asked questions which depended on tutors to supplement their cognitive
actions, the tutors didn't comply. This shows that the meaning which learners gave their questions is
different from the meaning tutors gave. Thus learners noticed the difference in meaning which tutors gave
and they reinterpreted discourse events; i.e. their questionings (Fox 1987). This reinterpretation would
cause either reflective thinking or monitoring.
We must make the distinction clear between reflective thinking and monitoring before
describing the process of developing learners' metacognitive experiences. We can distinguish reflective
thinking from monitoring as "criterion-referenced". Reflective thinking is to think backward carefully
about one's cognitive actions in the past. However monitoring is to evaluate one's cognitive actions with
one's criterion-reference. Thus monitoring is a meta-level action, but reflective thinking is not.
We believe that criterion-referencing is the discerning factor by which reflective thinking turns into
monitoring. To developing monitoring abilities means the development of a new criterion-reference. If a
tutor's response has impacted a learner's reflective thinking through the conscious cognition of the tutor's
criterion-referencing, the learner's reflective thinking could be the cause of his monitoring. If so, he would
monitor using the tutor's criterion. During this process of monitoring utilizing the tutor's criterion, a
learner gradually internalizes it as his own criterion. Then the student is able to do monitoring by himself.
This process is the identical to Vygotsky's theory (Vygotsky, 1978).
"Every function in the child's development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later on the
individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and inside the child (intra-psychological)".
Conclusion
We have proposed two elements in this paper. The first is that the learners' questions represent their
immediate antecedent cognitive actions and the tutors' responses represent their externalized
metacognitive activities to which learners' cognitive actions provided input or which can exert
influence on learners' cognitive actions. The second is how the communication between learners and
tutors develops learners' monitoring. If learners notice the difference in meaning engendered in the
tutor's response to their questioning, and they engage in conscious cognition of the tutors' externalized
metacognitive experiences, the learner's reflective thinking elicited by the tutor's responses produces
monitoring by the learner utilizing the tutor's criterion.
These two points are based on only two kinds of questions and answers. Although there are many
additional kinds of questions, we are quite certain that most of the learners who do not develop their
monitoring abilities ask these two types of questions.
References
Artzt, A. F. and Amour-Thomas, E. (1992). Development of a Cognitive-Metacognitive Framework for Protocol
Analysis of Mathematical Problem Solving in Small Groups, Cognition and Instruction , 9(2), 137-175.
Flavell, J. H. (1981). Cognitive Monitoring. In: W. P. Dickson (Ed.), Children's Oral Communication Skills , 35-60.
Fox, B. A. (1987). Interactional Reconstruction in real-time language Processing. Cognitive Science 11, 365-387.
Kayashima, M. (1998). Evaluating Collaborative Learning using BBS - focusing on questions of learners. Proceedings
of ED-MEDIA&ED-TELECOM, 1998, Association for Advancement of Computing in Education,
Charlottesville, VA., 691-696.
Mulyran, C. M. (1992). Student passivity during cooperative small group in mathematics. Journal of Educational
Research, 10, 151-177.
Nelson, T. O. and Narens, L. (1994). Why Investigate Metacognition? In: J. Metcalfe and A. P. Shimamura (Eds.)
Metacognition (pp. 1-25) MIT Press.
Roschelle, J. & Teasley, S. D. (1994) The construction of shared knowledge in collaborative problem solving In:
C.O'Malley (ed.) Computer Supported Collaborative Learning ,(pp. 69-97) NATO ASI series Vol. F-128,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Vygotsky, L. A. (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychology Processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
COMPUTER MEDIATED COURSEWARE
DEVELOPMENT AND THE ACADEMIC CULTURE
Koppi, A.J., Chaloupka, M.J. & Llewellyn, R.
New Technologies in Teaching and Learning, Carslaw F07, University of Sydney,
NSW 2006, Australia
Email: tony@nettl.usyd.edu.au
Abstract
Tertiary teachers are generally creative individuals, critical thinkers and experts in a
particular field. Whilst working collegially, academics usually maintain an objective
distance from the work of their peers. Tertiary institutions also tend to differentiate
themselves from other institutions and define their own special niche in the market
place. These attitudes are concerned with establishing uniqueness and they contribute
to an academic culture that pervades the education system from the individual
academic through to the institutional level.
This culture rewards the teacher (or group of teachers) for designing unique courses.
In Australia in particular, this personal course development is accepted practice to the
extent that cross-institutional formal evaluation and comparison of courses does not
generally occur. An academic will not normally adopt another academic's course
without personalising it. Academics make courses that are based upon personal
experience and beliefs. These features of the academic culture may be characterised as
idiosyncratic.
Consistent with the cultural practices, and public sector funding, individual
academics, or small groups of academics, put together (idiosyncratic) courses and
computer aided learning packages. Consistent with the cultural practices, few other
academics in the same discipline at other institutions adopted these inflexible courses.
In keeping with the culture, an academic will utilise parts of the work of other
individuals, e.g., in assembling a course, a teacher will weave together a unique fabric
of personal experience and selections from published works – a chapter from here and
a journal reference from there etc. Utilising a programme that cannot be teased apart
or modified has little place in this culture. It is not flexible.
The conclusion is that the uptake of learning programmes by the teacher and
institution will only occur if the programmes are consistent with the academic culture
and are customisable. In keeping with the academic culture described, a recent
development in Australia, the National Teaching and Learning Database (NTLD)
project is designed to provide access to learning materials. The database comprises a
centralised index of remote resources. These resources are held in other databases at
the various contributing members' locations. Developers of learning materials submit
a URL of the location of those learning materials. The primary resource (i.e., teaching
and learning material) may either be held in the database(s) that is owned by the
creators of the material or be submitted directly to the central database. In either case,
ownership is retained by the institution that developed the original material. The
NTLD is a distributed database (at many locations) which academics can search and
obtain teaching and learning materials to be customised, assembled and utilised as
appropriate to the individual or institution style.
Key benefits of the NTLD are a "one-stop" shop for teaching and learning resources
that can be deployed or re-deployed using different educational methodologies, e.g.,
resource-based, problem-based, or constructivist models.
The aim of this paper is to seek to understand and describe the academic culture in
order to be able to develop computer-mediated courseware that will be utilised by the
individuals working within this culture.
1. INTRODUCTION
The academic culture has a range of attributes that lie between several continua of
extremes. Collegiality at one end, and individuality at the other, describe one such
continuum. The system rewards the behaviour that characterises both ends of this
continuum, for example, collaboration in research is rewarded as is the demonstration
of individual creativity. Individual performance is particularly prised and sought after
and is accompanied by such questions as "but how much of it was really his/her own
work?" This individualistic end of the continuum can lead to idiosyncrasy as
academics seek to distinguish themselves from their colleagues. This idiosyncrasy can
also pervade course development to the extent that individual teachers make courses
unique to themselves. In fact, it is probably true to say that no two individuals will
teach the "same" course in the same way. Each individual will seek to personalise the
course in keeping with his/her own experience, beliefs and values. This also applies to
computer mediated courseware development.
If individual academics can be labelled as idiosyncratic, institutions also attempt to
distinguish themselves from each other. Thus, part of the academic culture can be
characterised by individuality or idiosyncrasy at more than one level, including
departments and faculties which seek to distinguish themselves.
Another continuum may be described by the extremes of conservatism and
innovation. From the teaching point of view, the conservative extreme of the
continuum may be concerned with maintaining the face-to-face didactic environment
and one of many innovation extremes may be concerned with computer-based, on-
line, distributed teaching and learning environments. It is probably reasonable to say
that parts of both extremes are relevant and appropriate at certain times for certain
purposes. Computer mediated courseware development belongs mainly at the
innovation end of this particular continuum. The conservative extreme tends to resist
technological innovation (Hesketh et al ., 1996; Crawford and Crawford, 1997).
2. COMPUTER MEDIATED COURSEWARE
Computer mediated courseware (CMC) has probably as many meanings and
applications as there are people thinking about it. Broadly, CMC has enabled a kind of
learning which lies along a continuum of complete freedom at one end to prescriptive
learning at the other end. From the student's point of view, at the one extreme, this
freedom represents many things: to learn whatever, whenever and wherever; to access
information and communicate conveniently at a global scale; to make one's own
destiny by personalising and pursuing one's own knowledge interests; to not follow
someone else's prescribed learning; and the ability to access continuing education
while in the workforce. This might sit more comfortably in the constructivist
philosophy where learners take responsibility for their own knowledge. At the other
extreme, CMC is prescriptive and didactic and learning is characterised by memory
work and repetition. In real life, learning takes place along the whole of this
continuum, even within the same discipline.
From the teacher's point of view, the provision of CMC may be in response to student
freedoms (or at least the desires for the realisation of these freedoms) but is also
constrained by the rewards, values and aspirations of the academic culture to which
most teachers probably subscribe. In many institutions, these constraints are
fundamentally determined by the need to enrol students and provide them with
structured learning programs that can be assessed.
3. THE ACADEMIC CULTURE AND COMPUTER
MEDIATED COURSEWARE
An aspect of the academic culture includes the continuum of teacher/student
dependency. At one extreme, the culture is teacher-centred and creates student
dependency. At the other end, students are autonomous independent learners. This
could result in a tension between flexibility and providing learning on demand, on the
one hand, and control over what the student is learning on the other. Whatever, a goal
of most teachers is to encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning.
There would appear to be a fundamental paradox between a rigorous academic culture
and flexibility. This tension is great where the academic culture has the teacher as the
central figure (teachers set the curriculum and design the courses) whereas
independent learning empowers the students (the students choose the learning
materials and set the goals). A position somewhere between these extremes is the
likely compromise where the teachers largely design the CMC yet the students have
greater freedom in access and time of learning.
Thus, it seems that in the design of CMC, the prevailing academic culture is biased
towards the end of the continuum where the teacher describes the path the student is
expected to follow.
Another continuum that is part of the academic culture may be described as the spatial
one. At one extreme, students attend all courses on campus, and at the other extreme,
all courses are mediated in distance mode either by paper or electronic means or both.
The spatial positioning is determined to some extent by the major goals of the
institution. The academic culture is not just manifest by teaching and learning but also
by the other major activity that occupies universities, that is, discipline-based
research. In many (not all) disciplines, research is spatially dependent (e.g. laboratory
based research), that is, the academic staff and students have to be in a particular
location (at least some of the time) to do the research. If research of that nature is a
priority, it is in the interests of universities to foster spatial dependence in order to
bring the students to the campus. In that case, there may well be a motivation amongst
research academics to use CMC for on-campus activities.
4. SETTING COURSES
In a traditional setting, courses are set according to a combination of interests at
several levels: the level of the institution through to the individual. The individual
level is probably the one with the most influence on the type of course, content and
method of interaction. Personal desires also play a large part. Most academics
personalise a course and do not adopt one in its entirety without changing it to suit
them. That course is developed from a combination of personal experience and
external resources assembled to support the personal experience and beliefs of the
academic. Generally the content is assembled as a result of a mix-and-match approach
(a book chapter here; journal paper there etc) which results in an individual, if not
idiosyncratic, course. How that subject is taught depends on a combination of the
content, teaching and assessment methods. (It is well known that the assessment
methods (usually time-honoured) often drive the learning.) Different institutions
teaching the same subject may have variations in content and teaching and assessment
methods producing a more-or-less similar course. Against this backdrop, there are
major implications for CMC developments. The driving force of individual creativity
in the setting of courses is a major factor in how CMC courses will be is developed.
Within the context of universities, many learning technology developments are not
used or taken up beyond the person or group responsible for the innovation (Scott et
al., 1997; Alexander et al., 1998). Dearing (1997) has suggested that the slow uptake
of computer aided learning (CAL) packages is because of poor IT skills amongst
academic staff. This may be true but we can also ask if there would be a great increase
in the use of CAL packages if the IT literacy were very good amongst all academic
staff? We believe that the answer would be negative because the academic culture that
promotes individuality and idiosyncrasy would be unchanged simply by increasing IT
literacy skills. Academics and institutions would still want to develop CMC in their
own way and would not adopt other people's programmes that cannot be customised.
The design, development and widespread utilisation of CMC programmes has to be
compliant with the academic culture. As argued above, this compliance means that
digital teaching and learning materials have to have certain qualities consistent with
the way academics work. One of the primary qualities is that they have to be
customisable (Jones et al., 1997) and capable of being personalised. In addition,
CMC programmes must be capable of being changed and combined with other digital
and non-digital course components. The ability to mix-and-match learning materials
to support the teacher's experience and consequent course construction is essential.
For these reasons, learning materials should be small and object-oriented (Chaloupka
and Koppi, 1998).
It is likely that the kind of technology that will be utilised and adapted by teachers is
that which supports traditional teaching practices. One fundamental practice is that of
delivering information as a lecture which has its place at one end of the
didactic/interactive continuum. Delivering information via the web is consistent with
this practice and is an alternative (or an addition) that is readily accepted by teacher
and student alike.
The means of providing teachers with ready access to digital learning materials for
assembling courses in accordance with many aspects of the academic culture is
provided by the National Teaching and Learning Database in Australia. The database
is distributed throughout the continent and consists of small reusable digital learning
materials (held at a variety of institutions) that can be pulled and assembled into CMC
according to the individual academic's way of working. The learning materials range
from simple image objects to more complex vignette objects. Chaloupka and Koppi
(1998) defined Vignettes as small, first-principle, first-person, heuristic activities
(components) from which courses can be constructed by utilising the NTLD.
Chaloupka and Koppi (1998) note that:
This vignette approach to development allows academics to construct
courses in much the same way that is traditionally acceptable. It also
allows the vignette to be used in a number of situations and applied across
disciplines. Thus the program development is a horizontal developmental
process as opposed to vertical development process which is discipline
based as represented by the monolithic development approach. Because
vignettes are single-issue first principal activities that can be readily
modified, they can be shared between disciplines. For instance, pH is
taught in a variety of disciplines including medicine, biology, agriculture
and chemistry.
The NTLD can be used to construct CMC simply by using the NTLD search function
to locate appropriate teaching and learning resources located on a contributing
database associated with the NTLD. Some of these resources (considered to be
objects) could be images, discussions, vignettes, reference materials, assessments and
teaching guides and other teaching resources. These objects can be assembled into a
cohesive learning environment or activity as defined by the CMC criteria. The
functionality of this working model is based upon the characteristics and idiosyncratic
nature of the academic culture.
5. CONCLUSION
Many aspects of the academic culture encourage individuality and idiosyncrasy and
these affect the way teachers make courses. For the benefit of student learning,
teachers make courses to suit themselves and generally do not adopt whole courses
made by others, and that includes computer mediated courseware packages that
cannot be customised.
Computer mediated courseware development requires that the course components are
easy to locate, obtain and assemble into integrated packages. A national distributed
database of learning objects contributes to the resources required for these purposes.
The goal of the NTLD project is to be useful by providing a service to academic
course developers. The usefulness of the NTLD is predicated upon the strengths and
limitations of the prevailing complex academic culture that this paper has sought to
understand and describe.
6. REFERENCES
Alexander, S, McKenzie, J. and Geissinger, H. (1998) An evaluation of information
technology projects for university learning. Commonwealth of Australia.
Chaloupka, M.J. and Koppi, A.J. (1998) A vignette model for distributed teaching and
learning. Association for Learning Technology , 6, 21-49.
Crawford, K and Crawford, S. (1997) Agency, Technology and Vision: The Dynamics
of Learning. Novae Research Group, University of Sydney, Sydney.
Dearing, R. et al . (1997) Higher Education in the Learning Society: Report of the
National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: HMSO and
NCIHE Publications.
Hesketh, B., Gosper, M., Andrews, J. and Sabaz, M. (1996) Computer-mediated
Communication in University Teaching. DEETYA. Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra.
Jones, P., Jacobs, G. & Brown, S. (1997) Learning styles and CAL design: a model
for the future. Active Learning 7 , December, pp 9-13.
Scott, B., Ryan, S., Patel, D. (1997) Embedding TLTP and other resource based
learning materials into the curriculum. Virtual Campus Real Learning,
Association for Learning Technology Conference, University of Wolverhampton,
Telford, Shropshire, UK, September 15–17. Conference Proceedings, pp. 68–69.
Development of a Collaborative Learning System
based on NHK's Educational TV Program
Haruo Kurokami
Faculty of Education
Kanazawa University
kurokami@mbc.sphere.ne.jp
Tatsuya Horita
Faculty of Education
Toyama University
horita@edc.toyama-u.ac.jp
Yuhei Yamauchi
Faculty of Humanities
Ibaraki University
yamauchi@mito.ipc.ibaraki.ac.jp
1. Introduction
There have been a number of attempts to make collaborative learning situations for elementary school children using
the Internet. While there has been some success, effective collaborative learning depends on the sharing of a
common problem or issue (Kurokami et al., 1996, 1997). Because of the vast quantity and variety of information
available for each learner, the Internet alone cannot provide the focus necessary for effective collaborative learning.
NHK, the largest broadcasting company in Japan, televises a variety of educational programs including, "Tatta
Hitotsu-no Chikyu; The Only One Earth." This series, targeting fifth and sixth graders, focuses on environmental
themes such as the destruction of the environment, environmental recovery, recycling systems, and what children
can do in their daily lives to help the environment. This nationally broadcast program provides a common learning
source for distant learners. Children from geographically distant locations, can watch the same program, form ideas
and opinions from their local perspectives and exchange information with each other.
2. Outline of Collaborative Learning System
We have developed a collaborative learning system named the "The Only One Earth Club"
(http://plan2.mbc.ntt.co.jp/~club/) based on the "The Only One Earth" series. The system is divided into two
collaborative modes: "Club Diary" and "Is the Earth All Right?" The former allows easy communication among
individual participants; while the latter provides the opportunity for in-depth communication among three or four
classes.
Club Diary: "The Only One Earth" series has 20 programs yearly. Each program is broadcasted six times over two
weeks. Participants are invited to exchange their opinions and ideas on BBS (Fig.1). After watching the program,
participants think about and study the story's theme. They can send ideas or opinions to BBS through the "Club
Diary." Our staff members, who are in-service teachers, can respond to the students opinions by choosing a
character from a character pool and sending a message. These comments encourage participants to learn and
communicate with each other.
Is The Earth All Right?: On this mode, a few classes make a group and collaborate with each other by web site and a
video conference system. Web sites are made on our system so that it is possible to make comments to other classes
via their web sites. Fig.2 is an example of a class's web site. The Web window is divided into two frames. One is for
class web sites and the other is for comments from co-learners. Each class learns about the environment from its
unique perspective and make its own web pages. The pages are used to present each class's research findings and to
exchange information with other classes. Participants who want to comment on a page he/she has read can change
modes to the "comment mode" by clicking a button located at the bottom of the window.
3. Conclusions
At the end of this school year over 240 children and 65 classes had participated in "Club Diary," while 15 classes are
participating in "Is The Earth All Right?." 15 classes are grouped by themes of learning. The themes are "Rice
Plant", "Water", "Garbage," "Atmosphere" and "Sea Turtle". Analysis of the "Club Diary" logs indicate that
children, participating in the system, created multimedia documents, including still photographs, communicated with
each other via BBS and began thinking about environmental issues in connection with their own daily life. The
system's success is illustrated by an interaction between classes participating in "Is The Earth All Right?" Questions
were raised around the use of agricultural chemicals. One class, located in a rural area, agreed with the use of
chemicals, while the another class, located in the city, insisted that chemical use must be stopped. The children
engaged in a heated debate via a video conference. Later, after interviewing farmers and consumers,. the students
exchanged their findings through their web sites and both sides were better able to understand the opinions and
objections of the other.
It is difficult to quantify these types of learning activities; however, the above examples clearly demonstrate that this
collaborative learning system, based on NHK's educational program, can encourage new types of learning.
References
Kurokami, H., Iguchi, I., Yamauchi, Y., Horita, T., & Kuroda, T. (1997) Relationship between Network and TV programs for
school children. Educational TV Programs and Educational Software in Multimedia Era, A Report for NHK
Kurokami, H., Horita, T., Yamauchi, Y., & Kuroda, T. (1998) Development of network communicating system to activate TV
centered learning, Educational TV Programs and Educational Software in Multimedia Era, A Report for NHK
DATABASE-DRIVEN WEB APPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING & LEARNING
Daniel Y. Lee
Department of Economics & Coordinator, the Virtual University
Shippensburg University
Shippensburg, PA 17257 USA
DYL@ship.edu
1. Introduction
Although many instructors now utilize the Web to supplement their courses, the Web pages they create are
mostly "static" in nature. These HTML documents are written and then posted onto the Web server, where they sit until
requested by a browser. Materials on these documents are outdated overtime until the Web developer revises them one
page at a time, which requires considerable time and effort, especially as Web pages multiply. In the long run, a better
strategy to maintain a Web site is to use "dynamic" pages linked to databases. These Web pages are "dynamic" in the
sense that they are created "on the fly." They don't exist until a browser makes the request. Upon the information user's
request, the database inserts the requested information into preformatted HTML templates. If the information in the
database is updated, the Web page will display the new information the next time it is requested by the user. The purpose
of this paper is to provide an overview of how educational Web sites can be more easily administered, modified, and
customized by using Web-database connectivity.
2. Developing Database-Driven Web
2.1 Advantages of using database-driven Web
Web browsers provide a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that can be used to access many things, including a
database. Unlike the traditional database management systems, the user would not have to configure and learn to program
database client software. Instead, using a Web browser's built-in forms capability, users can access a database by simply
filling in the data they want and pressing a button. The returned data can then be presented in an easily readable format.
Furthermore, the Web's cross-platform support allows users on many different types of computers or platforms (Windows,
Mac, Unix) to access a database from anywhere in the world. Information can be disseminated with a minimum of time
and effort, without having to solve compatibility problems (Lee and Liu, 1998).
There are several advantages of using database-driven Web development over the conventional "static"
Web pages. First of all, Web pages can be created "on the fly" by querying current information stored in the
database. New and fresh information can be presented to the user at each visit. This technology also makes it easier
to administer, modify, update, and customize a Web site. In addition, users can tap into vast existing databases
including many legacy systems through Web-database interaction. This allows for cross platform access without
requiring custom client applications. Furthermore, database-driven Web makes it possible such useful functions as
maintaining user state, i.e., user's preferences and other user-specific information can be stored between visits for
various uses. In addition to these benefits, database-driven Web renders particular advantages to educational Web
sites. Databases are "an excellent way to manage the media components of a Web site … instructional Web sites
comprise huge numbers of media objects and multiple of content creators; databases make managing this
information and longer-term maintenance issues easier to address" (Ashenfelter 1998).
2.2 Mechanism of database-driven Web
Typically, the Web server delivers a block of text written in the HTML to the browser, which parses the HTML
and may request additional content, such as graphical data. The model works well for static data, but what about live data?
For example, how would a Web server deliver content that it generates based on user input? One answer is to use a CGI
(Common Gateway Interface) script to handle the database queries. CGI scripts are programs that let Web servers
execute other programs and incorporate their output into HTML documents. The Web server executes a CGI
program as a separate process to fulfill a user's request, which can be as simple as a Web page hit counter or as complex as
a database query. Because a CGI program is external to the Web server, it can be written in virtually any language,
whether compiled or interpreted. Some Web servers provide libraries and interpreters for Java and Visual Basic for use by
CGI programs.
While CGI programs can handle basic Web-database connectivity functions, programming requires a steep
learning curve. CGI programming is also subject to such limitations as input data validations and weak security. Recently
various "middleware" products have been developed to minimize the CGI programming time and additional features of
Web-database connectivity, including superior security, input data validation, e-mail protocol, etc. Middleware is a
general term for any programming that serves to glue together or enhance two separate programs. Users now can
create Web-database applications by using a fourth generation language middleware products such as Cold Fusion or
Active Server Pages.
Database-driven Web publishing involves three major components: the Web forms, CGI or middleware,
and database system. The mechanisms for Web-database interaction are shown schematically in Figure 1. There
are four major stages in this interaction. First, the user fills the Web form using the browser, requesting pertinent
information. The browser submits the request to the Web server. Second, the server invokes middleware or CGI
scripts, accessing and querying the database. Third, the middleware or CGI retrieves or produces a HTML
document. Finally, the Web server sends the result to the browser for display. CGI script or middleware makes it
possible for the operations such as opening and updating appropriate database tables to link form objects to a
database structure specified in the database design. The Web server and database server can be hosted in a single
computer or two separate machines connected through the Internet.
2.3 Design of a database-driven Web
To design an effective database-driven Web, three major design activities must be performed, including
Web form design, database development and CGI or middleware programming. Web forms are necessary as a user
interface for a database-driven Web. The information user can send a request to a database by submitting it via
Web form. A relational database is composed of rows (for records) and columns (for fields) in table format.
Compared with a flat file structure, database approach has the advantages of minimal data redundancy,
information sharing, and data consistency. Finally, some programming is required to connect the Web forms and
databases. For example, Active Server Pages utilize extensively Visual Basic programming knowledge. Visual
InterDev utilizes more user-friendly graphical interface. Cold Fusion eliminates some of the complex CGI coding
by combining standard HTML with a server-side markup language called the Cold Fusion Markup Language
(CFML). For example, the CFML tag <CFQUERY> can replace many lines of CGI programming codes. In
addition, Cold Fusion supports such advanced features as security integration, dynamic Java forms, data entry
valuation, e-mail integration, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) support, and advanced SQL
(Structural Query Language).
3. Conclusion
Static Web documents are cumbersome and time-consuming to maintain. Whenever part of the contents is
changed, the Web pages need to be updated. While dynamic Web development may require greater up-front costs, these
database-driven Web pages will minimize the cost of providing up-to-date materials to the information user in the long
run. Instructors can simplify the means of adding and updating materials on the Web by connecting their Web pages to
databases. Carefully designed database-driven course Web sites can significantly enhance student-teacher interactions
without taxing heavily on the instructors' valuable time and effort.
REFERENCES
Ashenfelter, J. P. (1998). Using Databases for Dynamic Web Sites: Techniques. Ed-Media & Ed-Telecom 98 : Proceedings of the 10
th
World Conference on Ed-Media and Ed-Telecom. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. 1606-1608.
Dwight, J., & Erwin, M. (1996). Special Edition Using CGI . Indianapolis: Que Corp.
Lazar, Z. P., & Holfelder, P. (1997). Web Database Connectivity with Scripting Languages. World Wide Web Journal , 2(2).
Lazar, Z. P. (1997). Web-Database Connectivity. Dr. Dobb's Sourcebook , 22(15).
Lee, D. Y., & Liu, C. (1998). Building a Dynamic Web-Database Interface for Business Curriculum. Ed-Media & Ed-Telecom 98 :
Proceedings of the 10
th
World Conference on Ed-Media and Ed-Telecom. Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education, 842-847.
Swank, M., & Kittel, D. (1996). World Wide Web Database Developer's Guide . Indianopolis: Sams.net.
A web site system for instructors to manage collaborative learning
Chen-Chung Liu, Gwo-Dong Chen, Kuo-Liang Ou, Baw-Jhiune Liu, Chih-Kai Chang
Institute of Computer Science and Information Engineering
National Central University, Taiwan
{christia, chen, klou, bjliu, kant_c}@db.csie.ncu.edu.tw
Abstract: As the World Wide Web (the Web) become popular, increasing number of
distance learning systems are built on the Web. Yet, Instructors must onerously write
complex programs to manage students' learning behavior in a web based collaborative
learning system. In addition, the instructor should prevent a learner from reading prohibited
material, e.g. reading other groups' work result before deadline. Therefore, this investigation
devises a web site system that allows instructors to regulate desired collaborative learning
models. According to the regulated learning model, an instructor support system is also
devised to automatically monitor the learning activities, control the learning actions, and
generate notification information to guide learners to learn concepts in an intended
collaborative manner. Consequently, an instructor can easily and quickly construct a web
based collaborative learning system that supports a desired collaborative learning model.
Introduction
Collaborative learning style (Monaghan and Clement 1995) is widely used in conventional
classrooms. The learning style is also applied to promote the learning effect on the Web. Especially, a student
in a distance learning system can not talk and learn with other students face to face. The students may feel
lonely and abandon the courses without peers encouragement and pressure. In the collaborative learning style,
learners are divided into groups and interact with each other to achieve common learning goals. Many formats
of group interaction such as group project and discussion are used to promote the interdependency(Thousand
et al. 1994) among a learning group. Okamoto(Okamoto 1994) emphasized that the interaction among group
members such as discussion and collaboration promotes learners' understanding and confirmation. Besides,
owing to achieving a common goal of the team, members of a group are more willing to help each other and to
response question of other members quickly. However, to allow students for learning concepts in a desired
collaborative manner, the instructors must made great efforts to manage student's learning behavior in a
learning environment.
Our laboratory is cooperating with National Open University (NOU) and Institute for Information
Industry (III) to offer web-based courses. In general, a web-based course in NOU and III has a primary
instructor to set and monitor the learning goals. At the same time, three assistant instructors have to regulate
collaborative learning models and develop a web-based collaborative learning system (CLS) to allow students
for learning concept in a desired collaborative manner. Different assistant instructors usually adapt different
collaborative learning models, e.g. group projects, group discussions, group debates and quizzes, etc. In the
running of these courses, students suggest to offer a private discussion for their group. Students also do not
want their individual learning information such as the instructor's commend or homework to be read by
others. In addition, the instructors found that it is necessary to assign each student a role and to define
responsibility and capability of a role. Thus, the groups are easier to learn collaboratively according to their
role and responsibilities. At the same time, instructors are easier to guide and monitor the groups. To satisfy
these requirements, an instructor must write many programs onerously to manage different collaborative
learning activities. Therefore, instructors need facilities to manage students' learning behavior in a web-based
CLS.
Current web servers unfortunately do not support directly required facilities for constructing a CLS.
According to the existing collaborative learning models, e.g. Team game tournament (TGT), and Jigsaw
(Slavin 1994, Stallings and Stipek 1986, Stallings and Stipek 1986), and our experiences (Chang and Chen
1997), basic requirements for supporting collaborative learning on Web include facilities for (1) regulating
collaborative learning model (2) controlling the learning actions, and (3) notifying participants to guide
learners to interact with others according to the defined learning model. We explain each requirement and
why current web servers, e.g. Microsoft IIS and Netscape web server, can not support it in the following
collaborative learning scenario.
Team game tournament (TGT)(Slavin 1994) is recognized as an effective learning model in
conventional classrooms. The TGT model first evaluates learners' learning status and then divides these
learners into heterogeneous groups according to evaluating results. After studying a subject, learners of a
group join proper team games with the members of other groups to win points for their own groups. An
illustrative TGT scenario, as depicted in figure 1, is given here to clarify the tasks of instructors. First, learners
join a quiz activity after they finish an assigned reading activity. According to the portfolio in the quiz,
instructors divide the learners into several groups. Then, the learners are assigned to suitable team games to
win point for their groups. Finally, learners of a group discuss collaboratively to clarify their misconceptions in
team games.
Figure 1: The scenario of the illustrative example
To support the TGT scenario on the Web, an instructor must do the following tasks. First, there are
three roles involved in the quiz activity, i.e. student, teacher, and teaching assistant (TA) . The instructor must
initially assign each learner and other participant an appropriate role in the quiz activity. In addition, the
instructor must regulate the capability and responsibility of each role. For instance, the teacher role should set
quiz paper to start the quiz activity. Then, each student role should submit his/her answer in one day. Since
existing web server do not distinguish users' roles, capabilities, and responsibilities, instructors can not
regulate desired learning activity on the Web based on group, role, and status. This issue is referred as
learning model regulation problem.
Second, after the instructor regulate a collaborative learning model, each role has certain capability to
perform some actions. For example, in the quiz activity, a student role can read the quiz pape r and submit
his/her answer . He/she can also read the correct answer posted by a TA . However, until the student submits
his/her answer , he/she can not read the correct answer . In addition, some learning material can be access only
by a specific learner or participant. For example, the revised answer of a student's answer can be read only by
this student . Other student can not read the revised answer. Therefore, the instructor must prevent learners
from performing prohibited actions. We refer this issue as learning action control problem.
Finally, each role has responsibility to perform some actions according to the regulated collaborative
learning model. For example, an instructor may regulate that the TA role in a discussion activity has to initiate
a topic for discussion. Then, the moderator role has to raise issues of the topic in two days. The student roles
must post their arguments to an issue in two days. Finally, the TA should conclude the discussion . Therefore,
the instructor has to notify appropriate learner to perform proper actions in learning activities. The first thing
is to monitor the status of learners. Then, when the learner log in the system, the system should present
appropriate information and tell him/her what to do according to his/her status and the defined learning
model. However, current web servers are passive and stateless in nature. They present the same information
for each user. These servers will not notify a user when some event or condition happens. This issue is referred
as guidance and notification problem.
To sum up, in current situation, the instructors, web server managers, or learning system development
team should write many programs to build a web based collaborative learning system for each desired learning
model. The instructors need an easy-to-use facility tool by which they can easily regulate desired collaborative
learning models. An instructor support system is also necessary to automatically manage learners' learning
behavior, i.e. control student' learning action and generate notification information.
The Activity regulation tool
To allow instructors for regulating intended learning models, an activity regulation tool is supported
in the web site system. An instructor initially organizes a learning group and assigns roles in the group. The
learning group is then put in a learning activity. A participant of a certain role has responsibility to perform
some actions. The participants of different roles have also different capacities on performing actions.
Therefore, to facilitate instructors in regulating desired learning models, the activity regulation tool must allow
an instructor for specifying the following information: (1) learning groups that perform the activity, (2) roles
involved in the activity, (3) role assignment for organizing the activity, (4) actions that a role can perform in
the activity, (5) capabilities of each participating role, and (6) responsibilities of each participating role.
An illustrative quiz learning activity is given in figure 2. To clearly explain the idea, an informal
notation is used. The team games and discussion activities in the TGT scenario can be also regulated in a
similar manner.
------------------------------------------------------- Quiz Activity ------------------------------------------------------------
---
Participants:
s
1
, s
2
,, ta
1
, t
1
Roles:
Student, Teacher, TA , All
Role assignment:
Participants s
1
, s
2
play Student role.
Participant ta
1
plays TA role.
Participant t
1
plays Teacher role.
Actions: read quiz paper, read correct answer, read student's answer, read revised answer,
set quiz paper, announce correct answer, submit answer, revise student's answer
Capabilities Grants:
G1: All roles (Student, TA, Teacher) can read quiz paper .
G2: Teacher roles can read correct answer .
G3: TA roles can read correct answer .
G4: A student role can read correct answer . But he/she can not read correct answer until he/she has Submit his/her
answer.
G5: TA roles can read student's answers .
G6: Teacher roles can read student's answers .
G7: A Student roles can read a student's answer if he/she is the author of the answer.
G8: Teacher roles can read revised answer .
G9: TA roles can read revised answer .
G10: A Student role can read revised answer if the revised answer is for his/her submitted answer.
G11: Teacher roles can set quiz paper .
G12: TA roles can announce correct answer .
G13: A student can submit his/her answer . But he/she can not submit his/her answer one day after Teacher role set
the quiz paper.
G14: TA roles can revise student's answer .
Responsibilities:
R1: If a teacher role sets quiz paper , then all student roles must submit their answer in one day.
R2: If a student role submits his/her answe r, then a TA role must revise the answer in two days.
R3: If a TA role revise a student's answer , then the student role must read the revised answer in two days.
R4: If a teacher role set a quiz paper , then a TA role must announce correct answer in two days.
Figure 2: Quiz activity
Figure 3: Web interface of activity regulation tool
The activity regulation tool interface is illustrated in figure 3. To organize the learning groups, the
instructor can include a set of the participants in the activity regulation tool. For instance, the quiz activity in
figure 2 includes four participants in a learning group to perform the quiz activity. Furthermore, the roles and
role assignment allows instructors to organize the activity. For instance, an instructor can specify that a quiz
activity involves Student , Teacher , and Teaching Assistant (TA) and assign each participant in the learning
group to play appropriate roles. In addition, the activity model also contains a set of actions that participants
can perform in the learning activity. As illustrated in figure 3, instructors can organize activities by the
provided activity regulation tool.
In addition, to specify the capability of each participating role, the activity regulation tool allows
instructors to specify a set of capability grants. The capability grants indicate whether a participating role can
perform an action at a moment in a learning activity. There are four cases when a participating role performs
an action. (1) Statically accessible: A participating role can always perform an action. For example, a student
can always read quiz paper as given in G1 in figure 2. (2) Statically inaccessible: A participating role can not
perform an action. For example, a student can not revise other students' answer . In this case, there is no
capability grand in the activity model. (3) Privately accessible: An action can only be performed by a particular
participating role. An example is that a student can only read the revised answer of his/her answer. Other
students are not allowed to read the revised answer . Hence, the access grant G10 is set in the quiz activity. (4)
Temporally accessible: A participating role can perform an action only at some moment during the activity.
For instance, a student can not read the correct answer until he/she has submitted his/her answe r as regulated
in G4. Another example is that a student can not submit his/her answer one day after the teacher set the quiz
paper (G13). To specify these temporal properties, a temporal concept is required.
Many temporal formalisms such as temporal logic, timed temporal logic and metric temporal logic
(MTL)(Alur and Henzinger 1997) are available to specify the temporal property. For instance, the capability
grant G4 in figure 2 regulates that a student role can not read correct answer until he/she has Submitted
his/her answer. This capability grant can be expressed in MTL as not ReadCorrectAnswer Until Submit. And
the capability grant G13 as Not SetQuizPaper and Eventually
>1day
Submit to express that no learners submits
his/her answer one day after the teacher set the quiz paper.
To regulate the responsibility of each participating role, the activity regulation tool contains a set of
interaction rules. The interaction rules specify what a participating role should do when/after other
participating role performed some actions. For instance, the R1 in quiz activity regulates that if a teacher role
sets quiz paper, then eventually all student roles must submit their answer in one day. In this aspect, we use
also MTL to specify such interaction rules. For instance, the interaction rule R1 can be regulated in MTL as If
SetQuizPaper then Eventually
<1day
SubmitAnswer The interaction rules R2, R3, and R4 can be regulated in
MTL similarly.
Instructor support system -- Control of learning actions and notification
Figure 4. Instructor support system
Based on the regulated collaborative learning model, an instructor support system is devised herein to
control the learning action and notify appropriate learners or participants to perform proper learning actions.
We have implemented a prototype of instructor support system with ORACLE 8, Microsoft Internet
Information Server, and ISAPI programs. As depicted in figure 4, the instructor support system contains three
primary modules: page generator, action control module, and notification module. In brief, the action control
module determines the accessibility of actions based on the capability grants and the action history.
Furthermore, according to the responsibility in regulated learning model, the notification module generates
notification information to notify appropriate roles to perform proper actions. Finally, page generator
generates HTML pages of learning information and notification message according to the generated
accessibility information and the notification information.
To control learning actions, an action control module decides whether an action is statically, privately
or temporally accessible for a role. To decide whether if an action is statically accessible is trivial. However, to
decide the temporal and private accessibility, the action control module needs enough information. For
example, to decide whether if a student can read a specific quiz answer , we need to know the author of the quiz
answer to check whether if the learner is the author of the quiz answer since only the author of the quiz answer
can read this answer. In addition, to decide whether if a student can read a specific revised answer , we require
the author of the quiz answer which the revised answer is for. Therefore, for deciding private accessibility, the
author information and link structures of web pages are needed. In addition, to decide the temporal
accessibility, the author information and creation time of web pages is necessary. For instance, to decide
whether if a student can read a correct answer , we have to know whether if he/she has submitted his/her
answer. In addition, to decide whether a student can submit quiz answer, we need to know when the quiz
paper is set because only within one day after the quiz paper is set can the student submit his/ her answer.
Another requirement of the instructor support system is to generate notification information for
guiding learners to perform assigned actions. A notification module is required to monitor the action of
learners and other participants. Then, it checks the responsibilities in regulated learning model to determine
who should perform certain actions in learning activities. For instance, if a teacher set quiz paper, then the
notification module must notify all students to submit quiz answer. Since we can not expect that learners stay
on the collaborative learning system all the times, immediate notification to perform action is not necessary.
Therefore, the notification can use the action history, as illustrated in figure 4, to generate notification
information once a learner log in the collaborative learning system.
Requirement Instructor's Tasks Facilities
regulation of
learning model
Organizing learning group,
Assigning roles,
Regulating each role's capability,
Regulating each role's responsibility
Activity regulation tool with learning
group, role assignment and MTL for
specifying capability and responsibility
Control of learning
action
Monitoring learners' action,
Checking the accessibility of actions, and
Present learning material
Instructor support system for checking of
the learning actions, and dynamically
generating HTML file
Notification and
guidance
Monitoring learners' action,
notify learners
Instructor support system for generation
of notification
Table 1. Summary of requirement, instructors' task and supported facilities
We provide facility for instructors to regulate intended collaborative learning model, control learning actions,
and generate notification information. Table 1 summarizes the requirements, the instructor's tasks to enact
collaborative learning on the Web, and the facilities provided in this investigation.
Conclusion
The creation of learning environments that renders learning more active is initiating challenges for
research on learning (Barfurth 1995). The idea of the investigation comes from different instructors may desire
different collaborative learning models to promote learning effect in distance learning environments. The
architecture of the devised learning web site system fulfills the ideal to relieve instructors' tasks in supporting
desired collaborative learning models on the Web. Instructors can regulate desired learning model by the use
of devised activity regulation tool, regardless of writing complex programs. The instructor support system
automates the guidance and control of learners' learning actions. Instructors may consequently support desired
collaborative learning model on the Web easily and quickly.
References
Alur R. and Henzinger T. A.(1997), Real-time logics: complexity and expressiveness, Information and
Computation, 104, pp.35-77, 1997.
Barfurth M. A.(1995), Understanding the collaborative learning process in a technology rich environment: the
case of children disagreements. Proc. of Computer Support for Collaborative Learning, pp. 8-13, 1995.
Chang C. K. and Chen G. D.(1997), Constructing collaborative learning activities for distance CAL systems.
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol.13, pp.2-15, 1997.
Monaghan J. M. and Clement J.(1995), Use of collaborative computer simulation activities to facilitate relative
motion learning, Proc. First International Conf. on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning,
Bloomington, Indiana, pp.242-246, October 1995.
Okamoto T. (1994), The current situations and future directions of intelligent CAI research/development,
IEICE Trans. Inf. & Syst., vol.E77D, no.1, pp.9-18 , January 1994.
Slavin R.(1994), Small group method, in M. Dunkin(Ed.), The international encyclopedia of teaching and
teacher education, pp. 237-243, Elmsford, NY:Pergamon Press, 1986.
Stallings J. and Stipek D.(1986), Research on early childhood and elementary school teaching programs, in M.
Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, pp. 727-753, New York:Macmillan, 1986.
Thousand J. S., Villa R. A. and Nevin A. I.(1994), Creativity and collaborative learning, Paul H. Publishing
Co., Baltimore, Maryland, 1994.
Scaffolding : Applications to learning in technology supported environments
Catherine McLoughlin
Edith Cowan University
Western Australia
Abstract
Scaffolding is a form of temporary support offered to a learner to assist in the process of becoming a
skilled practitioner. Traditionally, the most common form of learning has been an apprenticeship,
where a novice learns through active participation in a task, initially only peripherally, and then
assuming more control and ownership. Originating in the socio-cultural perspective of Vygotskyan
theory and developed by later theorists, the concept of scaffolding has been extended by practical
applications in technology-based environments. As the World Wide Web becomes increasingly
integrated into the delivery of learning experiences at primary, tertiary and secondary levels, the
concept of scaffolding needs to be redefined because it is not readily translated into contexts where
the teacher is not present, as in on-line environments. This calls for a reconsideration of the nature of
scaffolding and for the alignment of theory with practice.
Introduction: Foundations of scaffolding
The term 'scaffolding' is increasingly used to describe certain kinds of support which learners receive in their
interaction with experts, teachers and mentors as they develop new skills, concepts or levels of understanding.
The term scaffolding was originally coined by Bruner, Wood & Ross (1976) as a metaphor to describe the
effective intervention by a peer, adult or competent person in the learning of another person. Bruner explicitly
relates the term scaffolding to Vygotsky's concept of "the zone of proximal development", that is the actual
developmental level of the learner compared with the level of potential development that can occur with
guidance or collaboration with a more competent person. In technology supported learning environments, the
metaphor of scaffolding is appealing in principle, yet elusive and problematic. The appeal of the concept lies in
the fact that it directs attention to the role of the instructor or teacher in the learning process, and does so in a
way which emphasises that good teaching is necessarily responsive to the state of understanding achieved by
particular learners. In earlier research therefore, scaffolded instruction was conceived as a joint interaction in
which the teacher and the learner share the responsibility for learning (Vygotsky, 1978; Wood, Bruner & Ross,
1976). In environments mediated by technology, scaffolding can be provided by a tutor or intelligent agent so
that learners attain new skills, concepts and knowledge.
Theoretical perspectives on scaffolding: Past and present
It is important to trace the early origins of research on scaffolding in order to appreciate its complexity. The
socio-cultural approach emanating from the work of Vygotsky has had a major influence on the development of
scaffolded instruction and apprenticeship models of learning (Vygotsky, 1978; Wood & Wood, 1976; Rogoff &
Lave, 1984; Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989). Much of this work emphasises the role of social interaction as
a cultural amplifier to extend children's cognitive processes, with an adult or expert other introducing learners
to the conceptual tools available in society. For cognition to be analysed, culture and context are the
fundamental units of consideration, as human development is seen to be located and immersed in social
practices. This perspective resists the separation of the individual from society and the daily environment, and
perceives meaningful activity as embedded in authentic socially-created situations. This perspective has had
profound and far-reaching influences on how current practitioners design learning environments (eg, Jarvela,
1995; Roschelle & Teasley, 1995). Cognitive change can be effected through processes of social interaction in
which ideas are articulated, shared, revised, modified and adopted because of their relevance to the cultural
context (Roschelle, Levine & Teasley, 1991; Newman, Griffin & Cole, 1989). Learners progress through the
ZPD by attempting successive approximations of the learning task, assisted by peers, more able others or with a
tutor. Support offered in the form of dialogue, discussion and demonstration has been found to be effective in
enabling cognitive change (Lave, 1991; Palincsar, 1986).
The mechanisms for assisting learner cognition through the ZPD have been extended greatly by technology
applications. Originally, the teachers role was conceived as providing scaffolded assistance through modelling,
contingency management, cognitive structuring and feedback (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). Through modelling,
tasks, skills and concepts can be demonstrated while retaining complexity and authenticity, so that learners can
become engaged in the acquisition of new skills. Contingency management is concerned with recognising and
rewarding learner actions, while feedback enables students to compare themselves to others. In cognitive
structuring, learners are assisted to organise their own experiences following the provision of explanations, or
meta-level strategies to enable students to organise their own thinking. Later, these mechanisms are
internalised and become metacognitive strategies for students to regulate theirs own learning. In addition,
verbal scaffolds such as instructing, questioning and cognitive structuring enable students to organise their own
activities by suggesting meta strategies that students can acquire so that teacher support becomes " ... a heard,
regulating voice, a gradually internalised voices that then becomes the pupil's self-regulating 'still small'
instructor." (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988: 57).
Evolving research on scaffolding
Some similarities and differences emerge when we compare recent work on scaffolding with earlier research
conducted in the 1980's. For example, much of the work of the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt
(CTGV) has emphasised the notion of anchoring instruction in everyday authentic contexts (CTGV, 1993;
1996). However a major difference is that earlier work (Tharp & Gallimore, 1998; Rogoff & Lave, 1984;
Newman, Griffin & Cole, 1989; Wood, Bruner & Ross;1976; Palincsar, 1986) was conducted in face-to face
classrooms, where forms of verbal interaction were the most common forms of scaffolding. Teachers and
learners occupied the same space, and engaged in learning processes in the social context of a conventional
classroom, with its prescribed rules, roles and expectations. This often limited scaffolding to teacher initiated
discourse. For example, in many traditional classrooms, questioning has been shown to be a form of social
control (Edwards & Westgate, 1994). Many of these social constraints are not present in the virtual classrooms
or in contexts where learning is asynchronous. In addition, the nature of scaffolding in such face-to-face
classrooms was assumed to be asymmetric in that the teacher was regarded as the expert, and the student the
novice. Recent advances in communications technology and in pedagogy envisage an active, participatory role
for students, as initiators and co-participant in self-regulating learning process (Brown & Campione, 1994).
A consideration of more recent work in technology-supported environments illustrates how the concept of
scaffolding has expanded to include many news forms of support, increased responsibility for students and a
fading of the directive of assymetrical aspect of earlier work on scaffolding. While Vygotskyan theory provides
the theoretical anchoring needed by making an explicit connection between social interaction and cognitive
development, other forms of support can be provided by technology thus enabling learners to engage in
cognitive change and skills advancement.
Supporting learning through WWW-based course supports
As the World Wide Web becomes increasingly integrated into the delivery of learning experiences at primary,
tertiary and secondary levels, the concept of scaffolding needs to be redefined because it is not readily translated
into contexts where the teacher is not present, as in on-line environments. This calls for a reconsideration of
the nature of scaffolding and for the alignment of theory with practice (Collis, 1997; 1998). As yet, research
focusing on the nature of scaffolds and their functions in specific contexts of learning is limited. Through the
provision of examples from a range of contexts where technology is used to mediate the teaching transaction, it
is possible to show that the notion of scaffolding offers a way of conceptualising the process of effective
learning by:
• reducing the scope for failure in the task that the learner is attempting;
• enabling learners to accomplish a task that they would not be able to achieve on their own;
• bringing learners closer to a state of independent competence.
As technology extends learning beyond the classroom to learning communities, so must roles and concepts of
learning and teaching be reconsidered (Collis, 1998). In learning from the WWW, distributed groups of
learners can be supported in the learning process by different technological functionalities which support
dialogue and interaction (Table 1). With its great potential for collaborative learning, particular forms of
scaffolding are needed to provide models, examples and support for the processes of active learning
characterised by:
• self-responsibility for thinking and learning,
• awareness of social responsibility;
• thinking and acting scientific processes;
• relating group process and product with professional practice.
.
Collaborative work can be supported by developing WWW functionalities to support, or scaffold group
processes and cognition. Collis (1997) has 're-engineered' academic courses and developed a number of 'tools'
to enable group work, sharing of resources, ideas and so that processes and products are integrated. Through a
shared work-space environment, students can access texts, documents and other resources, add resources and
interacting with others through conferencing facilities. Table 1 displays a number of scaffolding solutions
using WWW tools to enable cognitive outcomes and processes that underpin successful learning. In the left
column, a list of scaffolds afforded by WWW tools is provided.
Cognitive goal WWW Tool Scaffolding afforded by
tools
Reflection
Group dialogue
Collaboration
Bulletin boards
• Group messaging
• Discussion forums
• Guided reflection
Metacognitive awareness
Questioning
Self-regulated learning
Frequently asked question
space(FAQ)(
Hyperlinked access to course
resources
• Support for questioning
• Collaborative problem
solving
• Reflection on peer
contributions
Group problem solving
social interaction
Self-responsibility
Groupware & databases
Threaded computer conferences
• Shared resources
• On line mentors
• Management of gr oup
processes
Table 1: Examples of scaffolds afforded by WWW functionalities
Some examples of key indicators of effective scaffolding in Web-based environments include:
• the provision of learning resources to help students solve their own problems and share them with others;
• offering multiple channels of communication should enable conversation, exchange of ideas and
discussion;
• provision of support for collaborative tasks and development of higher order cognition.
It is advocated that these scaffolding features are built into the design of Web-based courseware, since its
activities tend to be less structured that face-to-face instruction, utilising principled design processes (Collis,
1997).
A range of technological approaches to enable scaffolded learning
Apart from utilising the functionalities of the WWW to support learning, recent research in technology
mediated environments presents an array of possibilities and perspectives on scaffolding. By investigating these
applications it is possible to compare and extrapolate common features and propose principles for future
research. Four examples of scaffolded instructional using hypermedia provide contrasting scenarios for recent
interpretations of scaffolded instruction.
Computer supported-intentional learning environments (CSILES)
This approach, conceived by Scardamalia & Bereiter (1989;1992;1993) provides a powerful collaborative
medium based on anchored design and discourse space, in which students can negotiate and construct new
understandings. In the environment, the teacher's role is transformed from that of manager to facilitator of
student collaborative processes. A CSILE is an experimental computer system which can mediate shared
spaces for collaborative knowledge building. The basis for this is a shared communal database, which gives
students a common space to create and communicate the ideas and representations that emerge from
individually and group work. In addition to supporting social interactions needed for shared understanding, it
provides facilities required for reaching reciprocal understanding, and facilities for the shared product to be
expanded, altered, clarified, elaborated and manipulate for new meanings to emerge. A shared database of text
notes and graphics notes allows learners to access and collaborate on the creation of knowledge objects.
CSILES have inspired further work and have provided a supportive medium for a number of projects
(Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993).
Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS)
In an intelligent tutoring system, learners are guided through a learning processes and provided with a
structures and sequences of task to assist them. Well known examples can be seen in the work of Andersen et
al (Anderson, Boyle, Carbett & Lewis, 1990; Anderson, Boyle & Reiser, 1985) is which students are taught to
solve algebra word problems, develop programs and generate geometry proofs. By reducing the complexity of
the task and providing cognitive structuring, an ITS cam scaffold learning. In an intelligent tutoring system, a
learner's progress is charted against an expert model of the process, which the student is expected to model.
Intelligent tutoring systems have be criticised for lack of authenticity in the learning task, and for creating
tasks where students do not have to engage in real life problem solving (Gudzial & Kehoe, 1998). In ITS
environments, collaboration in learning is less essential than in other apprenticeship settings.
Goal-based scenarios (GBS)
Goal-based scenarios are learning setting where students have to engage in an authentic setting where they are
presented with a goal to achieve. The objective is for students to acquire and develop the requisite process skills
and conceptual knowledge to attain the goal (Schank, 1992). Students are provided with technology-based
resources to achieve these goals, and their performance is compared to that of successful model of the process.
If a learner cannot achieve the goal, scaffolding is provided in the form of process information which gives
corrective feedback in story form to help the learner to address the problem. In a GBS students interact with
agents embedded in a system, rather than with socially-based collaborators or peers. BGS are nevertheless
unable to provide feedback or support for complex abstract processes where there is no single solution.
Design support environments (DSE's)
Design support environments are aimed at supporting students through a form of software realised scaffolding
tailored to assist students engaged in design of software or instruction. In DSE's the environment is simplified
by providing a large number of cases, coaching students in the design process and fading the scaffolding
(Gudzial, 1998). Instead of providing students with problems, they simply scaffold the design process. A
further feature of some DSE's is that they provide adaptive scaffolds, where students can choose or turn off
various scaffolds that are not required, thereby fading support.
Conclusion
Examples of each of these forms of technology based scaffolding can be found in the literature cited and each
offers a unique perspective on apprenticeship forms of learning, and with the original conception of learning in
the zone of proximal development (Collins , Brown & Newman, 1989). While each form of scaffolding
provides support, each differs in the level of social support, collaboration with peers and type of feedback
offered. Few provide the authenticity that a real apprenticeship offers. Nevertheless, by creating and
evaluating scaffolding with technology, researchers are now developing more principled forms of instructional
design to guide the process.
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systems. Artificial Intelligence, 42 , 7-49.
Anderson, J. R., Boyle, C. F., & Reiser, B. J. (1985). Intelligent tutoring systems. Science, 228 , 465-462.
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1994). Guided discovery in a community of learners. In K. McGilly (Eds.),
Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading,
writing and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Eds.), Knowing, Learning and Instruction: Essays in Honour of
Robert Glaser (pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Collis, B. (1997). Supporting project-based collaborative learning via World Wide Web environment. In B.
Khan (Eds.), Web-based instruction (pp. 213-221). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.
Collis, B. (1998). New didactics for university instruction: Why and how. Computers and eduction, 31 (4), 373-
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(CTGV) Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1996). Designing learning environments that support
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Edwards, A. D., & Westgate, D. (1994). Investigating classroom talk (Revised and extended second edition
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Guizal, M., & Kehoe, C. (1998). Apprenticeship-based learning environments: A principled approach to
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High-tech Learning Environments for Low-tech Classrooms
Jeff Morrow
Lead Designer, Web-based Integrated Science Environment Project
Graduate School of Education, University of California at Berkeley, USA
jmorrow@alum.mit.edu
James D. Slotta
Director, Web-based Integrated Science Environment Project
Graduate School of Education, University of California at Berkeley, USA
slotta@socrates.berkeley.edu
As increasing numbers of classrooms throughout the United States and the world become Internet-ready,
educational content providers must be aware of the particular technological issues faced in these classrooms.
In many cases, the result of recent upgrades is a well-connected classroom full of low- to mid-range
computers. However, many content providers appear to be proceeding under the assumption that with good
connectivity comes good client-side technology. In our own work developing Internet-based learning
environments, we have come face to face with this conundrum. For example, one urban middle school
excitedly approached our project, not long after their Net Day celebration, to announce that they were fully
wired, connected, and ready to use our curriculum. Unfortunately, when we arrived to consult them on
implementing our approaches, we were greeted by a roomful of computers with insufficient memory to run
the latest Internet browsers! In addition, increases in classroom Internet capacity have often been outstripped
by even greater increases in Internet demands resulting from modern Web site design. Heavy use of graphics
and Java within Web pages can render the Internet capacity of some classrooms obsolete before students even
have a chance to go online. This presentation will address five important problems with the assumptions made
by educational content providers: the problems of graphics, Java, data processing, bandwidth, and scalability.
It will then review our own case history in the Web-based Integrated Science Environment (WISE) Project,
reviewing our adopted solutions to these real problems. The presentation will evaluate the effectiveness of our
solutions and how we revised them over the course of our first year of development.
What is WISE?
The Web-based Integrated Science Environment, or WISE, is an NSF-funded research project whose goal is
to harness the wealth of existing Internet resources, the power of Internet technology, and the insight of prior
educational research in designing new technology and curriculum for integrated science. Based on prior
research in the Knowledge Integration Environment (Bell, Davis and Linn, 1995; Slotta and Linn, in press),
WISE curriculum provides students with knowledge integration activities where they critique existing
materials drawn from the Web, create designs, and compare theories of controversial science topics. Our
project incorporates existing Internet materials to bring exciting new science activities to middle and high
school classrooms in accordance with an established pedagogical framework of Scaffolded Knowledge
Integration (Linn, 1992). WISE technology is completely Web-based, meaning that its interface runs
completely within the Web browser. The decision to serve all our functionality from a central server was
made in response to the issues encountered in previous versions of our technology that included some client-
side software, resulting in many unanticipated problems.
The Problem of Graphics - The ability to transmit and display graphical content is one of the most
fundamental strengths of the World Wide Web. However, as anyone with a 14.4 kilobits-per-second modem
can tell you, overeager use of graphics can quickly frustrate even the most patient Web user. In an average
Web page download, graphical content accounts for the vast majority of total download time. Thus, content
providers must deliberately plan graphical content in a way that provides the desired look and feel while
minimizing data traffic.
The Problem of Java - The Internet is replete with information about Java ranging from serious
technological discussion to pure marketing hype. Although Java's promises of easy development and cross-
platform support are becoming more realistic, educational content providers must be aware that the use of
Java can significantly increase the minimum system requirements for their sites. In most cases, the use of Java
will increase the minimum system requirements for acceptable performance even if the theoretical minimum
system requirements remain the same.
The Problem of Data Processing - Internet content providers of all types are quickly realizing that a major
hurdle to overcome is the selection of methods for organizing, storing and retrieving large amounts of data.
Relational databases such as Oracle, Sybase, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL have become the rage among
content providers due to their flexibility and speed in dealing with arbitrarily large and diversely organized
data sets. The choice of a database engine, however, results in additional constraints and choices to be made.
Specifically, content providers must create mechanisms for client communication with the database. Many
sites choose a CGI-based approach, but this is often insufficient. The major drawback of CGI programs is that
each client request involving a CGI causes a new program to be launched and run on the server. Even if the
CGI programs themselves are small and fast, the overhead involved in launching them is quite high.
The Problem of Bandwidth - Bandwidth is a measure of how much data can be transferred over the path that
exists between a server and a client. The problem of bandwidth is related to both data processing and
graphical content. However, whereas control of data and graphics resides primarily with the content provider,
control of bandwidth does not. Unfortunately, the nature of the Web is such that insufficient client-side
connectivity can reflect poorly on the content provider, even if no server-side bottlenecks exist.
The Problem of Scalability - A scalable system is one that can handle higher traffic by straightforward
means such as purchasing new or additional hardware rather than more complicated means such as major
software redesign. This is one of the foremost concerns of all Internet content providers, especially since the
number of users approaching the Internet is increasing at a phenomenal rate.
These issues have been at the forefront of many technological decisions we have made in the design of our
Web-based Integrated Science Environment. Our experiences have shown that if classroom bandwidth is
sufficient, the end users' experiences can be positive even on classroom machines that are five years old or
older. Our presentation will discuss how this has been achieved in the WISE Project, focusing on the five
problem areas mentioned above. The presentation will also show that with proper server-side preparation, it is
possible to balance desired functionality against technological limitations for a very wide range of client
machines. Finally, it will touch upon the necessary trade-offs between server-side performance and cost. The
purpose of this presentation is not only to share our experiences in implementing a high-tech learning
environment, but also to invite discourse among others who have had similar experiences.
References
Bell, P., Davis, E. A., & Linn, M. C. (1995). The knowledge integration environment: Theory and design.
Proceedings of the Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Conference (CSCL '95: Bloomington, IN),
(pp. 14-21). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Linn, M. C. (1992). The Computer as Learning Partner: Can Computer Tools Teach Science? In K.
Sheingold, L. G. Roberts, and S. M. Malcolm (Eds.),Technology for and Learning. Washington, DC:
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Slotta, J. D. & Linn, M. C. (in press). How do students make sense of Internet resources in the science
classroom? In Jacobson, M. J. & Kozma, R. (Ed.), Learning the Sciences of the 21st Century. Hilldale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates.
Acknowledgements
The WISE Project is funded through NSF Grant #REC 98-05420.
Re-engineering the MBA
Using Virtual Seminars
Drew Parker Vivian Rossner-Merrill Rob McTavish
Faculty of Business Administration LohnLab for Teaching Technologies LohnLab for Teaching Technologies
parker@sfu.ca rossner@sfu.ca mctavis@sfu.ca
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
Introduction and Overview:
Universities are increasingly subscribing to the notion of executive education, lifelong learning, and program profitability
largely as a result of decreased public funding and greater public demands for accountability. At the same time, novel
technologies are starting to prove effective for the delivery of remote full or part-time programs. Schools are now starting to
offer unique programs that are quickly becoming global through novel delivery methods. Strategic alliances have been
formed and new technologies employed and the resulting increased competition between educational institutions underscores
the necessity to re-engineer existing programs to meet learning needs that may span a lifetime. The purpose of this paper is to
present a case exemplar describing how one university re-engineered its MBA program. Our challenge was to design a single
set of courses that would serve the different needs of both students and working professionals. The goal was to develop high
quality and sustainable courses and program options to be offered in a highly competitive educational market place that
reflects the criteria of excellence required by the University.
Why Re-engineer the MBA?
The North American MBA market has changed dramatically in the past several years. Overall enrollments are dropping
(Canadian Business), while product offerings continue to expand. Student educational demands are also expanding
concomitant with new developments in educational uses of technology. Thus needs for enhanced communication among
dispersed individuals and novel applications of technology led us to explore uses of computer mediated telecommunications
in ways to ensure that our Business programs remain competitive with established programs available in Canada. (See, for
example, http://www.athabascau.ca or http://info.queensu.ca/index.html .) Thus a necessary part of re-engineering the MBA
discussed here included developing high quality, sustainable courses that incorporate a range of flexible study options suited
to the virtual learning environment.
The concept of re-engineering has a simple premise: to look at underlying processes and consider how Information
Technology can support a redesigned methodology. It has come to mean change in almost any form, but continues to reflect
changed business processes. The MBA degree is a suitable candidate for re-engineering today due to increased pressure for
shortened delivery times, remote locations access, and the need to remain competitive by meeting the variable knowledge
needs of students in different workplace situations. These include management development seminars, executive diploma
programs, focussed Masters programs, like a Master of Technology, and specialized Master's programs designed for target
client groups like nurses, physicians, dentists, agriculturists, financiers, or entrepreneurs. To design programs that allow for
incorporation of the range of desirable options, one must study a particular program's underlying processes, including target
clientele, timing, method of delivery, and desirability of change. Making programs available while students remain in the
workplace precludes disruption of workflow, salary and benefits, and reduction in required residence time for students. Other
advantages include considerable cost reduction for corporate sponsored study, allowances for the reusability of course
materials for in-house professional training and upgrading of personnel.
Modularizing the Business Program:
University graduates who move into a management role often look to executive programs to upgrade their management
acumen. Our starting point, therefore, was to target working professionals who either do not have business backgrounds, or if
they do their knowledge is outdated, who are in situations where the need for education or training in one or more business
areas is highly desirable. A second targeted group comprised students who typically have recently graduated from an
undergraduate program and are looking to either extend their business education to graduate school or to acquire business
education in addition to another discipline, such as computing science or engineering science. To better accommodate the
range of prospective students' needs, we developed a series of integrated modules that together make up a Graduate Diploma
Program in Business Administration (GDBA).
The modules are designed for a variety of applications:
• in whole, they offer a specialized graduate diploma,
• in whole, they provide a "pre-MBA" qualifying program for students wishing to prepare for advanced studies in an MBA or Executive
MBA program,
• in standalone formats, they may be used singly or for cross-disciplinary incorporation into other related or complementary courses or
programs,
• as a packaged grouping, they may be selected for professional development or specific training or upgrading needs,
• in packaged or standalone formats, they can be reassembled for overseas or national delivery.
Program Description and Design:
Graduates of this program are expected to have acquired a fundamental mastery of core topics in Business Administration,
and have proven ability to work strategically in teams, and to present and defend complex material. Professional development
courses, on the other hand, are available on a fee for purchase basis and may or may not include on-line or in-person
instruction. Modules to be used for adaptation to cross-disciplinary areas are available on request. The modules, singly or
combined in a program, are suitable for students studying in cohorts or on their own. Students complete a total of eight half
courses plus a project at a minimum, and must make up a series of qualifying courses if their background doesn't include
coursework in a particular area, namely Management Science and Information Systems, Accounting, Finance, Marketing or
Human Resource Management.
The overall program goal was to design courses that would be offered entirely over the Internet. In most cases, students are
expected to meet only in their respective virtual seminars. All students are required to participate in on-line group
conferencing and to have, or have access to, the necessary computing equipment. Because students meet instructors and study
in asynchronous and synchronous learning environments, they will be able to work independently of time and place-based
constraints. The LohnLab for Teaching Technologies group assisted with all phases of the planning including selection of
technologies appropriate for the program and for the design and delivery of courses. Their instructional design expertise
provided guidance in using principles of instruction drawn from empirically viable models of instruction and learning that
were used to organize the desktop interface and inform the processes of teaching and learning.
Instructional design features focused on optimizing teaching and learning practices that pertain to the virtual seminar setting
but are flexible enough to vary with the goals and objectives of the different course modules in the program. Design features
focus on providing a tightly structured course architecture and carefully laid out processes and procedures for students to
follow. Once these parameters were designed we then concentrated on implementing teaching and learning methods that
maximize opportunities for collaborative online group activities, tasks, and assignments and foster lively discussion and
debate of pertinent issues. Optional strategic learning practices were also embedded in course design. These were specifically
intended to provide mature, returning students with study tips and aids they may find helpful after prolonged absence from
study. For most courses the instructors presence was initially quite directive but moved into more of a facilitative role once
students were active in the learning process, both singly and in groups, and seen to be taking a good deal of responsibility for
their own learning. Examples of course design features will be presented and discussed in terms of their suitability for the
content concerned and contribution toward enhancement of instruction and learning processes and outcomes.
Benchmarks for Early Success:
Although the material to be covered is established curriculum, the form of delivery is radically different from the status quo.
In this case, we designed a program specifically for non-resident students designed to be offered through the computer
mediated medium of instruction using tools provided through the Internet. Because of the experimental nature of the program
there are a number of key risk areas where we needed to have demonstrated successes:
• student acceptance as indicated by enrolment figures, establishing wait lists and course and program completion rates
• faculty buy-in. In order for the program to succeed, good faculty must be convinced of the value of experimenting with new mediums of
instruction and course delivery
• institutional commitment to completion of the course cycle
• The success of courses and of the program must be demonstrable. This includes metrics of student performance, evaluation of the
program, acceptance of incoming students and acceptance by employers wanting training and upgrading opportunities for their employees.
The program is currently in process and students have completed the first half of their coursework. Benchmark outcomes to
date are available and will be discussed in our session. Information on the success of course design features and strategic
learning practices, however, will not be available until the completion of the first cycle.
Hezinet: Interactive (Adaptive) Education Through Activities
Tomás A. Pérez, Koro Gabiola, Julián Gutiérrez, Ricardo López, Amaia González, Jose Ángel Carro
Dept. of Computer Languages and Systems
University of the Basque Country UPV-EHU
Spain
{tomas, jibgacok, gutierrez, jibloprr, jibgogoa, jibcamej}@si.ehu.es
Abstract: Most language learning systems and in general all educational systems acces-
sible via WWW, lack in individualizing the course for each student. Adaptive Hyperme-
dia Systems can offer solutions by controlling the student progress throughout the course.
Besides, they can provide multimedia interface to students. This paper introduces HE-
ZINET, a project whose goal has been to develop by the end of 1998 a commercial pro d-
uct based on the AHS approach for learning Basque language. As far as we know, this
product will be the first with these characteristics in the market.
Introduction and Context: Adaptive Hypermedia Systems for Language Teaching
The World Wide Web (WWW) began in 1989 as a mean of transporting research and ideas effec-
tively (Berners & Cailliau, 1989). In few years, the widespread use of the WWW has converted it in a very
appropriate medium for sharing all kind of information. One of the uses of the WWW is distance learning.
The ideal course would be intelligent and adaptive to the user.
Based our experience, currently computer systems for language-learning do not adapt to their stu-
dents. The systems we have evaluated do not take into account which concepts the student has not been
able to acquire. As Professor Alfred Bork said, "they are alike traditional books badly designed, adorned
with hypertext functionality" (Sáez-Vacas, 1998). For instance, (Kargu-Heldring, 1996) describes an Ada p-
tive Hypermedia System (AHS) for learning Estonian by means of an interactive hypermedia environment.
However, this system does not take into account the student model to help understand the information it
provides. (Johansson, 1998) introduces IKITS, an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) that teaches Chinese
individually. System developers say that individuality can be seen when the students get tips from the sys-
tem depending on the results of their interactions. These tips are independent of the concepts he has under-
stood or not. AHSs constitute a new approach for educational systems (Urban-Lurain, 1997). Usually,
AHSs combine ITS and Educational Hypermedia Systems (Pérez, Gutiérrez & Lopistéguy, 1995). Because
of this, they get the advantages of both to achieve the adaptation to the student.
The Basque language is spoken in the Basque Country, which is situated on the North of Spain
and on the SouthWest of France. It is not a curiosity of the past, but a living language, and therefore, plenty
of future. The majority of grown-up population is not Basque-literate, that is why exist centers for Basque
learning: the so-called "Euskaltegiak" . The learning of this language is divided into several levels being the
last the one called EGA ("Euskarako Gaitasun Agiria" or "Basque language Certificate"), which assess a
level of proficiency in written and spoken Basque.
We have built Hezinet-EGA, a language-learning system on the web, as a solution for people
willing to learn Basque that are not able to assist to the Euskaltegiak . With the system, the students can
learn via Internet at their own place and pace. A course lasts about 100 hours. The courses to learn Basque
from scratch last 500 hours (10 terms, 50 hours each). EGA-Hezinet cover the last two terms. Later on the
system will be completed to cover the other four courses.
Hezinet-EGA is user-adaptive. The adaptation can be seen in several ways. First of all, since the
system uses WWW the system can be used with any web browser available. Second, the system stores in-
formation about the different students and presents diverse course material according to it. For example, the
students are categorized into two stereotypes: analytic and Multimedia. Depending on these categories the
system will present activities either full of attractiveness and needing more interaction (multimedia) or
simpler activities visually less attractive using basically text (analytic). Third, the system also prepares
adapted tests to assess the student acquisition of knowledge. The test, usually does not contain items used
before and the items are about content that the student has already seen. Of course, the items can also in-
clude the characteristic of multimedia and analytic previously commented. Fourth, It creates new activities
to make the students keep working on those concepts that they have not acquired (looking at the results of a
test). Fifth, the system provides a book of Basque grammar (hyperized) whose presentation adapts to the
student travel throughout the knowledge.
The system is not totally valid without the help of a human teacher. The teacher can complement
and assure the correct performance of the system. He or she can supervise the activities the student is
working on and add (in most cases) or delete (rarely) activities to make the system adapt better to the stu-
dent. It is supposed that these decisions are taken after some contact with the students or any other interac-
tion apart from the system. Besides, in language-learning there is a lack in working or assessing essays.
There are some aspects, such as the writing style, that have not been solved yet and where the help of a
human teacher can be very helpful.
Of course, the users may adapt their interaction with the system asking for optional activities
stressing on either the same concepts or concepts related to the concepts that an activity covers. Once the
students have completed an activity, they may notice that they need further work on the contents it is
stressing.
This paper describes EGA-Hezinet, an AHS for education. Next section will describe the structure
of the pedagogical domain as pedagogues organized it. Then, a brief guide of the activities is given. Activi-
ties are the method that the system provides to let the student learn within a constructivist approach. After
that, the architecture of the system is explained. Eventually, some conclusions are given.
The Structure of the Pedagogical Domain
The pedadogues in Basque language defined the structure of the pedagogical domain. They desig-
nated content (concept) as the basic unit (Fig. 1). Some of them are key concepts. The pedagogues create
activities according to these units. Contents are grouped into work areas and families. So far, there are 10
working areas, namely: declination, verb, syntax, vocabulary, suffix, orthography, connectors, written ex-
pression, speech comprehension, and reading comprehension. These work areas and families give the sys-
tem some knowledge to recommend the student to practice certain activities related in some way to one
concrete activity. The system offers activities related to the family of the main content of an activity or to
the group.
Figure 1: A graphical representation of the structure of the Pedagogical Domain
The system manages basically courses. A course is structured in layers . A layer contains a group
of concepts pedagogically structured by the experts that must be presented to the student and that must be
evaluated after seen it. Layers in a course get progressively more complicated. Each layer contains several
sessions. A session is equivalent to a class at the school (1-hour). The system stores the analytic and the
multimedia version of a session (Fig. 2). A session contains a series of activities that the student has to
make. Each session contains three parts: a presentation , activities and an evaluation to test whether the stu-
dent has understood the contents for what the session was designed.
Figure 2: A session for analytic (left) and multimedia (right) students
Teaching With Activities
An activity is an interactive exercise to be done by a student. It is the smallest piece of work that
the system manages. It usually involves some abilities to work on listening, reading, and writing…). We
have defined 20 different types of activities, on which the user can work during a session. They include (1)
Highlight mistakes in a text where the students read a text and have to highlight the words with mistakes
such the one depicted in (Fig. 2). There is also a progress cue, which shows the percentage of the exercise
already completed. (2) Multiple choice exercise that consists of several questions based on a multimedia
document (just text, a video clip, sound…) the students have to look through previously. The student has to
choose the correct response to a question from a group of selected answers previously given. (3) True-false
exercise, which is a variant of the previous type of activity. In this case, the students have only two possible
answers to choose: true and false . (4) Free answer exercise. In this case, the questions about the document
have no predefined answers. The student has to write a complete answer. (5) Ordering exercise where the
student has to choose the right order of all of several elements offered in a random order to get a coherent
result. Currently, the elements we work with are words, sentences, paragraphs and images, such as in (Fig.
2) right. (6) Matching elements, where the student has to find for each element in a list a matching element
in another list. At the moment we working on object names and their pictures, words and their definitions,
words and one of their synonyms, words and one of their antonyms. (7) Fill in blanks. The student receives
a text with some blanks to be filled in. The exercise may optionally provide a cue with a list of words to be
used. (8) Translation exercise where the student has to translate a column with short sentences or alterna-
tively words. There is another column to fill in with the corresponding translation of the element offered.
(9) Translation of documents. This exercise presents a text either in Spanish or Basque and the student has
to translate it to the other language. (10) Fill in speech balloons of comic strips. The system shows a comic
strip and the student has to fill in the balloons in the strip to build up a story. (11) Sum up exercises. Start-
ing from a multimedia document, the student has to write an essay summarizing its ideas. (12) Composi-
tions or essays. The student has to develop an essay about a briefly exposed subject (usually a sentence
with four or five ideas to start organizing the result).
Architecture of HEZINET
The system has six main modules, namely, the Interface, the Auditor, the Course, the Student
Model, the Intelligent Module, the Human Teacher Module and the Communication Module. In (Fig. 3) a
view of the interaction between these modules is provided. There are two well-differentiated parts: the hy-
permedia and the adaptive part. The Interface module controls the hypermedia part. The other modules
form the adaptive part, which is the one that is in charge of decision making and storing the evolution of the
student evolution with the system. The modules have been implemented using Java, Orbixweb and SQL
Server.
Figure 3: General architecture of HEZINET
The interface module consists of a series of screens developed specially for each part of the sys-
tem. The screen design has been taken seriously so that the student motivation gets promoted and he does
not get bored, as stated in (Landow, 1997) "if the user gets lost or bored, the system is bound to fail" . The
screens contain very intuitive buttons and are very easy to use (Baker, 1993): "the interface should be
structured such that the student is learning the subject domain, not the program interface". The Interface
interacts directly with the student. It obtains user reactions and sends relevant ones to the Auditor. The lat-
ter processes that information and returns back to the former new data to be displayed. The interface has
been divided into five functional spaces (Fig. 4). Area 1 contains buttons offering functionality always
available during the student interaction with the system. It basically contains contextual help for new users;
a grammar book; a dictionary; tools to contact a human teacher or to talk with other students working with
the system at that moment; and a tool to review the steps followed previously. Area 2 contains buttons that
will not always be active. Some of them depend on the type of activity the student works on. Area 3 is a
navigation area that offers the possibility to go back through previous steps of navigation. Area 4 is only
informative and provides information about the task being done by the student and the location in the hy-
permedia where is the user. Finally, area 5 is the workspace. It shows the activities and provides places to
write or construct answers to questions.
Figure 4: The interface is divided into five functional areas
The Course module manages all the didactic material provided by the pedagogue experts. It con-
tains all information about the pedagogical domains explained in the previous section. The Auditor module
distributes the requests to the other modules. It has been designed using the pattern facade (Gamma, Helm,
Johnson & Ulissides, 1995). It transmits the interactions considered relevant by the interface.
The Student Model module stores general characteristics as the login, password…. It also records
the student profile (multimedia, analytic) and the performance along the sessions with the system such as
concepts acquired, failed, etc. Some of these characteristics are gathered at the beginning of the course in a
general test carried out either by the system or by a specific exam.
The Intelligent module consults the Student model and makes intelligent decisions based on heu-
ristically defined tasks taken from Artificial Intelligence. It also compiles tests to evaluate sessions using
techniques borrowed from Item Response Theory (Weiss & Yoes, 1990) and Computer Adaptive Testing
(Hambleton, Zaal & Pieters). Besides, it requests data update in the student model as a result of certain op-
erations made by the student such as recording the results of a test, or navigation from a node to another in
the hypermedia.
The Teacher module provides tools to manage the behavior of the system to adapt better to the
students. With it teachers can supervise the learning and behavior of their students. They are able to access
the Student Model and examine its contents. Consult which activities, sessions, layers, courses have been
seen and which concepts have been passed and failed. This module also provides tools to build teacher-
defined sessions made up from activities existing in the system (by now). These sessions have the same
characteristics and treatment as the sessions compiled by the system autonomously. This system also pro-
vides functionality to retrieve and assess those activities that the system is not able to evaluate autono-
mously.
Finally, there is a Communication Module that allows distribution among several machines of the
previously commented modules. It is implemented using CORBA (Urban-Lurain, 1997) programming en-
vironment.
Conclusions
EGA-Hezinet is the AHS built as a result of the project Hezinet. It demonstrates that AHS can be
built on the web even when the domain is large and complicated such as in this case the learning of a lan-
guage. The key techniques of this success relied on the experience of the project participants. Aurten Bai
gave a coherent and usable structure to the domain. The group of Hypermedia and Multimedia (GHM) of
the University of the Basque Country add to the system their background with some research prototypes of
AHS, such as HyperTutor (Pérez, Lopistéguy, Gutiérrez & Usandizaga, 1995) or WebTutor (Pérez & Gu-
tiérrez, 1996).
The interface of EGA-Hezinet is plenty of functionality and offers great variety of activities. This
has been achieve thanks to the effort of Ibermática in the implementation and the design of up to 20 differ-
ent types of activities made by pedagogues of Aurten Bai. Also the efforts of adaptation included in the
system added by the GHM. The system has included currently some activities specially created by well-
known Basque writers to encourage the students with some motivating narrations. And multimedia is
achieved adding animations, presentations and virtual tours through the Basque country using Macromedia
Director.
EGA-Hezinet is not another prototype. It is a commercial product obtained from research work
developed by the GHM. The system is going to be published soon, after it passes its evaluation period with
students of a high school. Our goal is to use this experience to develop other systems in other areas. The
group has already contacted other possible partners interested in include their domain in such an interactive
system.
References
Baker, N.C. (1993). Intelligent Tutoring Frameworks for Engineering. In Information Technology for Civil and Struc-
tural Engineers, Proceedings of The Third International Conference in the Appli-cation of Artifical Intelligence to Civil
and Structural Engineering. B.H.V. Topping and A.I. Khan Editors, Civil-Comp Press. 295-300.
Berners-Lee, T. & R. Cailliau, (1989). Proposal for a hypertext project.
http://www.w3.org/pub/WWW/Proposal.html
Gamma, E., Helm, R., Johnson, R. & Ulissides, J. (1995). Design patterns. Addison Wesley Congman Inc. 185-193.
Hambleton, R. K.; J. N. Zaal & J. P. M. Pieters (1990). Computerized Adaptive Testing: Theory, Applications & Stan-
dards. In Hambleton, R. K., J. N. Zaal (Eds). Advances in educational and psychological testing. Kluwer Academic
Publishers: Norwell, Massachusetts (USA).
Johansson Kokkinakis, S. (1998) An intelligent Tutor System for Chinese.
http://svenska.gu.se/~svesj/IKITS/IKITSeng.html
Kargu-Heldring, E. (1996). Estonian Language Learning in Interactive Hypermedia Environment. Proceedings of the
Conference Hypermedia in Tallinn, Tallinn.
Landow, G.P. (1997). What can educational hypertext do? What can you do with hypertext in education ?
http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/vp/educate.html
Object Management Group. (1998). Bookmarks for CORBA.
http://www.omg.org/news/corbkmk.htm
Pérez, T. A. & Gutiérrez J. (1996). WebTutor. Un sistema Hipermedia Adaptativo para la educación en WWW. Actas
del V Congreso Iberoamericano de Inteligencia Artificial, IBERAMIA'96. Cholula, Puebla, MÉXICO.
Perez, T. A., Gutiérrez, J. & Lopistéguy, P.(1995). An Adaptive Hypermedia System. Artificial Intelligence in Educa-
tion, AIED'95. AACE: Charlottesville, EE.UU.
Pérez, T. A., Lopistéguy P.,. Gutiérrez J. & Usandizaga I. (1995). HyperTutor: From Hypermedia to Intelligent Adap-
tive Hypermedia. Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, ED-MEDIA'95. AACE: Charlottesville, EE.UU.
Sáez-Vacas, F. (1998). La duración creadora. PC Week magazine. September.
Urban-Lurain, M. (1997). Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Historic Review in the Context of the Develop-ment of Arti-
ficial Intelligence and Educational Psychology.
http://web.cps.msu.edu/~urban/ITS.htm
Weiss, D. J. & M. E Yoes. (1990). Item Response Theory. In Hambleton, R. K., J. N. Zaal (Eds). Advances in educ a-
tional and psychological testing. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Norwell, Massachusetts (USA).
Acknowledgements
HEZINET project has been carried out with the economic support of Gobierno Vasco-Eusko Jaularitza (Gov-
ernment of the Basque Country). It has been a joint project of a software company (Ibermática), a prestigious regional
newspaper (El Diario Vasco), a cultural foundation whose aim is to spread Basque knowledge (Aurten Bai), a seco n-
dary school from the environment (Ekintza ikastola) and the Hypermedia and Multimedia research group of the Un i-
versity of the Basque Country.
We would like to acknowledge Iñaki Mokoroa and Koldo Lopetegi (Ibermática), Andoni Unzalu (Aurten
Bai), Santiago Ipiñazar (El Diario Vasco) and Koldo Pérez (Ekintza ikastola) to join their effort to build this product.
A telematics learning environment on the European Parliament:
the ParlEuNet system
Alberto Reggiori, Clive Best, Per Loekkemyhr, Dirk-Willem van Gulik
alberto.reggiori@jrc.it, clive.best@jrc.it, per.loekkemyhr@jrc.it, dirk.vangulik@jrc.it
JRC - Joint Research Centre of the European Communities
ISIS - Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety
STA - Software Technologies and Automation Unit
TP 270, 21020 - Ispra (VA), Italy
Abstract - The ParlEuNet (European Parliament Network) under development at the JRC is a Web
based information system that will provide a multimedia educational platform for 10 secondary
schools across Europe. Schools, teachers and pupils will use the system to teach to, learn about and
prepare collaborative projects on the European Parliament. State of the art Internet technology
together with a set of pedagogical models will be employed to give live access to a highly dynamic
multimedia database and promote a student-centred problem based learning. Web servers,
browsers, digital certification, Java/JavaScript, URN and metadata technologies will allow an easy
and transparent access to a set of resources. The pilot experiment under development will have to
provide a validation platform to propose useful, transferable models on learning in a telematics
environment for generalisation in a maximum number of European schools.
1. Introduction
The World Wide Web (WWW) has shown to be a really good means of distribution and communication of
multimedia content worldwide. On-line databases, data catalogues, advertisement services, data dictionaries and
searching tools are commonly used within information communities today. Access to data and information has been
made easy and straightforward. JRC ISIS has developed several dynamic Web based information system. These
systems allow users to register and to submit and update information and data to a closely integrated database. The
European Wide Services Exchange (http://ewse.ceo.org ) developed for the Centre for Earth Observation has been
very successful and is now used regularly by Europe's community of remote sensing specialits. Other systems are
the G7 Environment and Natural Resource Monitoring (http://ceo.gelos.org ) and the CEOS Information Locator
System (http://cils.ceo.org ). This last system has servers worldwide and allows for metadata synchronisation
between servers. A feature of the EWSE is that each user has personal Web space where they can customise and
update documents, images etc. This type of server is characterised by a "self populating database" whose content is
defined by the users of the system.
The ParlEuNet (European Parliament Network) is the first European initiative to permit secondary school students to
use state of the art networks and multimedia resources to learn about and do collaborative projects on the European
Parliament. Internet connections, videoconferencing and a website containing a well-structured dynamic multimedia
database of educationally relevant materials will be used by students to access information on the European
Parliament, create their own projects, and exchange information and views with members of Parliament and students
in other countries. The students' work will gradually supplement the website with educational modules and resources
which can be used by other students. The ParlEuNet system is under development at the JRC site and aims to
provide a first prototype system by September 1998.
The objective of this document is to give a general idea of the ParlEuNet system showing its component parts, its
possible uses and describe the basic techniques that will be used to implement it.
2. General description
The ParlEuNet system will provide a multimedia database on the Internert to be accessed by 10 schools across
Europe. The theme of the database will be the history, institutions and functions of the European Parliament. The
system will handle two types of information : reference material and dynamic educational material. The former
concerns information and description of the European Parliament, the European Union and the Institutions of the
EU; this will provide the basic set of data chunks which students and teachers can access and derive information.
The dynamic education material contains the structured work defined by teachers (course work, assignments) and by
pupils (projects, documents).
Figure 1 - Overview of the ParlEuNet system
The EDUCASE software under development by Arboth Learning Technologies NV will be used to store and
retrieve all the reference material. Whereas the full dynamic educational content will be handled through a Web
multimedia database. The EDUCASE software is currently a PC based system supporting teachers and learners. It
consists of two tools. The first allows educators to enter course material into an MS-ACCESS database and to define
structured course material using an editing tool. The second, Edubrowser allows learners to access the course
material in an interactive fashion. The student can select different views of the material - through scenarios and
through linked structures. The material is formatted in HTML and is supported by helpers such AVI video players.
The system runs on a standalone PC and all the software tools are written in Visual Basic. EDUCASE was
developed under a previous EU funded project and is now being applied for technical education and training by
several industries and companies. The EDUCASE software will be interfaced to the ParlEuNet system either using
the ODBC protocol and/or a Web server accessable by users thorugh a Web browser.
The ParlEuNet system software will be tailored for the needs of students and teachers to exploit the new technology
available to them through the Internet. The system will allow individual students to prepare and submit material
visible by the teacher and/or other students. Groups of students will be able to prepare joint project work.
Communications between schools, between students and remote collaboration on project work for students from
different schools will be possbile using the system. ParlEuNet aims to provide a transparent and integrated interface
to the overall material. Students will be directed towards EDUCASE for reference material about the Parliament and
to the dynamic system for authoring and structuring project material. At the same time, users can access the Internet
at large for acquiring additional data and material and insert into their work.
A tree view of available resources will be displayed into the entry page of each user, giving a easy to understand and
straightforward way to navigate through databases. Any object within the EDUCASE system can be incorporated
into student created material held within the dynamic database.
There will be a unique identification system to retrieve resources stored within the system. Both systems must
support three languages : English, French and German. Users will have the freedom to feed data and search
keywords in different languages. Each user of the system will be identified uniquely, giving them a persistent profile
for long term and transient (session) information. Each user will have their own private area where they can upload
and store data. Students and teachers will be able to interact with databases and construct and structure their work as
HTML pages. A simple content editor will be developed to help users to fulfill this task. A hierachical structure of
all data will be assured to give the possibility to school directors, teachers and the database manager to administer
objects of a specific subpart of the system. Teachers will be able to delete or modify as well as insert resources into
pupils private space. Each school and class will have their Web page where identity cards and information of all
members are collected together automatically. The system will allow to build collaborative project pages between
schools, between members of a particular school or pupils of a specific class. There will be a teacher or student that
will own a project or assignment. An internal message system will be set up to allow student-to-student iteraction. It
will be possible to set up a group work Web space to which a number of users can contribute. A bulletin board
facility will be available to students to post a message or a question and get back an answer by somebody else. A
logging system will be built into the server to allow educationalists to analyse the reaction of students to the system.
The logging will register the accesses to items and the choices and constructs made by the students.
Downloading of large multimedia files over the Internet can be a serious problem. Therefore a caching system will
be set up. There will be a CD-ROM issued regularly containg update from the database of video clips, sound files,
VRML models etc. The system will automatically identify which data to load from the client CD-ROM and which
other to load over the Internet. There must be an educationalist interface to allow researchers to analyse the activities
of the students giving a full access to all parts of the database.
Possible scenarios
Based on the description given above a set of sample use cases of the system will be described here.
Populating the reference database
This scenario concerns the definition and insertion of the reference material of the European Parliament
within the EDUCASE system.
1. The reference database is populated using the existing editing and data entry tools provided with
the software.
2. A researcher identifies a number of documents, images, video clips and speeches, which cover the
historical development of the Parliament.
3. All the inserted material is classified into course material, case studies and a set of learning
goals/path is defined.
4. All the documents are digitised and converted to HTML and the images are converted to JPEG.
Populating the dynamic database
This scenario describes how a user can register into the system, insert data, create projects and set
assignments.
1. The user accesses the Web server and get registered in. Each user receives a unique digital
signature (like a credit CARD ID) that will be used to identify them in future.
2. Each registered user has a personal Web space and a personal profile where they can submit
reports, research and personal details.
3. Students are grouped into classes. Classes are grouped into teacher groups. Teachers are grouped
into schools. Schools are grouped into divisions etc. Each group of users has a Web page
including all members' ID cards.
4. A teacher submits assignments for members of the class. Each pupil create a set of documents (or
projects) for that assignment.
Student assignment work
This scenario describes a simple use of the system to define a collection of resources and publish it.
1. A teacher or a user organise the assignment work and/or the project work.
2. Students research for information in the reference EDUCASE database or directly on the Internet.
They include and collate their contribution (results) into a report document.
3. Students use a dedicated HTML content editor to structure, format and organize their resources.
They publish the document to the dynamic database.
4. Teachers receive a notification after each student contribution.
5. All the project or assignment work is structured into a document collection.
Inter School work
This use case describes a path of interaction and collaboration between users.
1. A head teacher or educationalist set up a user group composed by members of a different classes,
different schools and perhaps different districts
2. The head user set up the access rights to the group project page.
3. Each member contributes to the project submitting their own contents.
Educationalist research
This scenarios outline how a researcher can analyse and monitor the progress and effectiveness of the
system.
1. The logging system will contain information about chioce material and decisions made by
students.
2. A educationalist has read access to all elements of the database and can view any assignment and
report submitted across all users.
3. The educationalist calls up an analysis tool to produce a report of activity within a certain project
or for acertain student.
Registering new schools
The last use case describe a possible way to expand the ParlEuNet system to other schools.
1. The ParlEuNet will be publicly visible, but no write or access will be possible to individual class
work of students. Only school and class Web pages will be visible.
2. A new school may apply to be registered on the system. When agreed by the administrators, they
can be included in the network.
3. The new school Web space will be automatically created when they register in the first time.
3. Technical description
The following section will depict the system architecture as is under development at the JRC.
The ParlEuNet system will be built using a four tier layered architecture. A modern Web browser on the client side,
a Web server on the server side backed by the applications/tools and the underlaying data holding. There will be a
level of indirection into the data holding splitting up the database into two parts : the entity object model and the flat
data storage (see Figure 2).
The entity object model contains the links, references and metadata which constitute the virtual worlds which make
up the users environments. Whereas the flat data storage contains the physical images, sound and video clips, the
reference material (EDUCASE) and text files. The neat separation between logical and physical resources will allow
to mirror part of the system on CD-ROM or onto a Web site close to the target schools (Intranet).
The actual model of the World Wide Web does not address issues like user identification, session management,
persistence and data description. The ParlEuNet system will try to solve those problems using an enhanced Web
server integrating modules to handle user identification, session tracking, user profile persistence and metadata
handling. This implies that a complete personalized and persistent environment will be automatically available prior
to invoking the ParlEuNet application components.
To identify uniquely a user on the system a digital certificate and/or a basic authentication will be used. This
solution will be almost invisible to the user. A separate session module, built into the Web server will manage and
track individual user sessions (i.e. a user having multiple sessions opened, or logged in on more than one machine).
Using the identity, the authorisation and session information a private profile database, session database and Web
accessible directory will be made available to the application being invoked.
The general architecture shown in Figure 2 emphasizes how the system has been defined according to application
specificity. A rigorous distinction between User Interface (UI) components and applications, entity object model and
flat data storage has been made. The reason for the first distinction is to make functional decomposition easier and
allow a fast prototyping of the user interaction. This functional separation will allow to deploy and store part of the
server applications near the user Web browser and tighten the bandwidth requirements.
Figure 2 - The ParlEuNet system architecture
The distinction between the entity object model and the flat data storage is twofold. First, it allows references to the
EDUCASE database directly from projects and assignments. Secondly, through a set of CD-ROM backups will be
possible to move part of the physical entities on the client side (in particular those elements which are too
cumbersome to transfer or which are often used). In this way, users will be still able to modify elements referred to
on the CD-ROM, but such a modification would imply that the data will be loaded from the remote data storage
again until the next backup is burned and dispatched. Using the Uniform Resource Names (URN) technology will be
possible to federate and independently manage these entities. A URN consists of a persistent URL with an extra
level of indirection behind it. Federated URNs will allow for an arbitrary number of depositories with little or no
interconnections or shared management. The URN resolution to a URL will be done automatically when necessary.
The entity object model contains effectively a object relation model of various resources owned by pupils, teachers
and managers, such documents, projects and assignments. To communicate such information structure between
client and server applications a metadata strategy is needed. This should allow to serialize the data model and pass it
fore and back between the Web server and the Web browser. At the JRC, it is under investigation the use of the new
Web metadata technologies like the Extensible Markup Language (XML) and the Resource Description Framework
(RDF) to fulfill this crucial task.
4. System prototyping
A series of prototypes of the ParlEuNet system are under development at the JRC. These aim to provide a basic
framework on which the final system will be built.
The actual prototypes are implemented using Apache (version 1.2 or higher) as Web server running on a FreeBSD
UNIX machine, PERL5 as programming language on the server side and HTML/Java/Javascript to provide the UI
on the client side. The system has been tested using Netscape 3.0 and/or Netscape Communicator 4.0 as well as MS-
IE 3.0-4.0. The Apache software has been customized to include a session module, a digital certification module and
many others.
The prototype under development is available at the following address : https://pen.jrc.it
5. What to espect from the ParlEuNet
A first prototype version of the system must be ready by January 1999. Based on the first prototype the final system
will be defined and implemented.
A variety of collaborative activities will be planned in the experimentation phase. ParlEuNet will experiment with
pedagogical models that promote student-centred problem based learning aiming at the design of guidelines for
working in telematics learning environments. Training workshops will be conducted to integrate the telematics
learning environment into classroom practice, get feedback on content, the appropriateness of the media involved.
Following the experimentation, the results will be analysed. In addition to educational publications, a practical guide
will be produced to disseminate the results to other European schools to generalise the results from the pilot
experiment. A hands-on workshop in the European Parliament will be organised for policymakers and
Parliamentarians. Workshops will be organised on a national level by parents' associations as well as the distribution
of a project video and major on-line hyperlinking with European educational projects.
6. References
CEO Briefing Document, CEO/115/95, http://www.ceo.org/CEO_briefpap.html
CEO Enabling Services, CEO/166/1995 , CEOS , http://gds.esrin.esa.it:80/05EC3ADD/Cceos-about
EWSE, http://ewse.ceo.org
G7 Environment and Natural Resource Monitoring, http://ceo.gelos.org
CEOS Information Locator System, http://cils.ceo.org
ParlEuNet, http://parleunet.jrc.it
WWW, http://www.w3.org
HTTP, Berners-Lee, T., The Hypertext Transfer Protocol , World Wide Web Consortium, Work in Progress ,
http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/Protocols/Overview.html
Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- HTTP/1.0, Internet draft of the HTTP Working Group of the IETF,
http://www.w4.org/pub/WWW/Protocols/HTTP1.0/draft-ietf-http-spec.html
URL, Berners-Lee, T., Fielding, R. and Nielsen, H.F., Hypertext Transfer Protocol-HTTP/1.0, March 1995
IETF, http://www.ietf.org/
URNs, K. Sollins, L. Masinter, Functional Requirements for Uniform Resource Names, RFC 1737
EWSE Design Document, Clive Best , European Wide Service Exchange Design Document, CEO/125/95
Perl, Larry Wall and Randal L. Schwartz , Programming Perl, O'Reilly & Associates, Inc, ISBN 0-937175-64-1
Apache, David Robinson, Apache - An HTTP Server , Reference Manual , The Apache Group 1995 ,
http://www.apache.org/
Synchronised Slides 'n Sounds On-line
John Rosbottom
Department of Information Systems
University of Portsmouth
Locksway Road, Portsmouth, PO4 8JF, UK
john.rosbottom@port.ac.uk
Introduction
Synchronised Slides 'n Sounds On-line (SSSO) is an integrated multimedia/hypermedia system that
provides a distinctive new medium for teaching and learning. Students use the world wide web to
connect to an audio lecture illustrated by visual slides. Students can move backwards and forwards
through the lecture while the slides and the talk remain tightly synchronised.
The cornerstones of student learning in the late twentieth century are the lecture, the tutorial, the
practical case study and the book. One of the most important aspects of these ways to learn is that they
are all to some extent highly flexible and may be adapted to a variety of students in a variety of
situations. These approaches to learning work in a wide variety of subject areas to a wide range of
student competences. The influence of the computer as a learning aid, rather than as an administrative
aid to learning, is significantly less than the mainstays of the lecture delivered in a face to face lecture
theatre, the tutorial or seminar delivered in a small group environment, and the book. However SSSO
has something of the versatility of these more traditional learning methods.
Pedagogy
The approach to education that we are currently developing seeks to maintain a highly flexible
approach to learning by utilising a wide variety of resources and methods. To this extent it is much the
same as any standard late twentieth century university course. However whenever it is appropriate to
do so, activities are migrated to a multimedia/hypermedia environment delivered on the world wide
web. The key criterion in implementing this system is that of identifying the most appropriate way to
deliver resources and facilitate learning. What we are developing is a robust "mixed economy" of
learning. We believe the lecture is over-used. Some (but not all) of what is done in lectures can be
done better by the equivalent lecture delivered as an asynchronous multimedia lecture on the world
wide web.
There is an ideal of the lecture which is the Socratic model, or perhaps the Oxbridge model, in which
students are inculcated into a field of knowledge and understanding by gifted, charismatic individuals
able to inspire their students with a love of the subject and a thirst for learning more. On this ideal
model lectures are conducted in a face to face environment where students can interrogate the lecturer
who is sufficiently sensitive to construct responses at a level appropriate to the students' current level
of understanding. The lecturer is able to perceive the needs of the audience and explains the subject in
such a way that they can relate their new understanding to what they already know. The reality in
modern Higher Education is that only a minority of lectures correspond to this ideal. Large student
numbers from widely heterogeneous backgrounds, and shorter teaching hours conspire to reduce many
lectures to a much more routine affair in which the lecturer addresses some slides and answers some
questions. There may be insufficient time for every question to be asked. Such a lecture pitched at the
"average student" in an audience of perhaps 150 students is likely to be beyond the comprehension of
some, and obvious to others - both of these extremes learn little from the lecture. Part of the aim of our
current work is to be able to raise the standard of face to face lectures to that of the ideal outlined
above. Our approach to achieving this is to make these face to face lectures much more of a "special
event" than the routine, same-time-same-place-every-week lecture. To achieve this elevation of
standards many of these routine lectures can be beneficially delivered as a streamed audio file with
synchronised slides illustrating the talk and an extended set of frequently asked questions associated
with the discussion of the lecture. These SSSO lectures are just one of a rich set of features which
make an hypermedia educational environment that in many respects reflects the richness and variety of
provision found in standard University learning.
Distance Learning
Can our environment be used for distance learning? The answer is "Yes and No". The learner is an
intrinsic part of successful distance learning. Traditionally what distinguishes successful distance
learners is an extraordinarily high level of motivation to learn, a resourcefulness in developing
appropriate learning skills, and a very high ability to manage their own learning. It would be a mistake
to suppose that all "standard" University students exhibit these qualities to the same degree as
successful distance learners. So the traditional distance learner will rejoice in the web based learning
environment as a supplement to the traditional distance learning resources of books and correspondence
with tutors; many will accept web-based resources as a substitute for traditional distance learning tools.
What though of the standard full-time students? We are wary of diminishing the richness of their
environment in case there is an adverse effect on student progress and success. So we do not wish to
eliminate the face to face lecture, we want to make it better. Unlike some face to face lectures
everything in our SSSO lectures is legible. The slides are clear on the computer screen, the digitised
voice played though the sound card is clear. Crucially, and unlike in face to face lectures, the
individual student controls the pace of events. Students might rewind the lecture in order to replay
something important. They might pause to check in a book something that was said. They might
pause the lecture in mid-sentence in order to construct a mail message. Such e-mailed questions do
themselves become a valuable resource as "frequently asked questions" visible to all.
Technology
The system uses RealPlayer to play streamed compressed audio. We have experimented with two
approaches to the creation of SSSO files. The first utilises Real software to embed slide-change events
into a Real-encoded audio file. The second technology uses Synchronised Multimedia Integration
Language (SMIL) to display slides at predetermined points in the audio file. This open standard
language makes it easy to "play together" a variety of media. The first technology is very simple for the
user and can be played through a standard web server using http protocol. The second, SMIL based,
technology requires the use of RealServer to deliver the files to a Netscape browser (Internet Explorer
includes an Active-X plug-in that makes the RealServer unnecessary but we have followed the more
general route). Using the SMIL solution the student-interface is more functional but also more
complicated. For example students can select any slide and play the lecture from the start of the slide
(like playing a track on a music CD). The simpler interface of the first method requires the user to
move a slider to the approximate start of the desired slide.
Conclusion
Our experience with SSSO has been limited to just a few trials, but feedback from students has been
encouragingly positive. Observations of students using the system shows that they do pause the
presentation and replay sections. A telling comment from one student is: "I like the on-line lecture
because I am in control." We expected the quality of student lecture notes to improve as they can take
as much time as needed, however one student commented "I didn't bother to make any notes because I
knew I could play the lecture again." So like most educational media SSSO may be susceptible to
misuse! Next year we plan to use the method as a substitute for some of our standard lectures, so
students will experience a high quality distance learning regime as a small part of their course. To
view a sample SSSO lecture that discusses further the contents of this paper please see
http://www.dis.port.ac.uk/~johnr/lal2/start.htm
Higher Education: Infected with a Millenarian Bug?
Dr Yoni Ryan
Teaching and Learning Support Services Department
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Australia
y.ryan@qut.edu.au
Suellen Tapsall
School of Media Communication and Culture
Murdoch University
Perth, Western Australia
stapsall@central.murdoch.edu.au
Abstract: This paper reports on an extensive survey of the opinions and intentions of major media and
telecommunications CEOs and higher education administrators regarding the potential for 'a global university'. It
argues that a crisis of confidence engulfs public sector education systems, which may only be resolved through a
thorough knowledge of the private companies involved in education delivery, and a renewed focus on the core
business of higher education.
Five years ago a millenarian virus hit the academic world. Not the Y2K bug, but an
apocalyptic vision of a global university dominated by media companies and telecommunications
entities. The virus was orally and aurally transmitted and spread quickly through the Vice Chancellors
and Directors of well-established and prestigious universities, fuelled by respected academic leaders
such as Barry Munitz of California State University, who foresaw a conglomerate of Microsoft, AT&T
and IBM offering the Governor of California a cheaper, more efficient public education system. In
Australia, the virus was spread by Alan Gilbert, University of Melbourne Vice-Chancellor, an
academic not noted for alarmist statements. Subsequently, the Australian federal education department
tendered for a reality check of the global university. Queensland University of Technology won the
contract in its Media and Journalism department.
This paper reports on the potential scenarios our team devised on the basis of investigations
and interviews with many of the key players in the corporate and academic world. They represent our
analysis, within the context of the investigation's focus on convergence with global media networks, of
the potential for new types of worldwide universities either in existence or likely to emerge within the
next ten years. We conclude the paper with an update in terms of the likelihood of the scenarios a year
later, and a few suggestions for inoculating our present universities from the effects of the virus, which
we believe is more a crisis of confidence within public education than a threat from the corporate
world. The scenarios are not mutually exclusive: several may develop concurrently, and combinations
may appear.
Scenario 1: Harvard-Murdoch U
A globally branded university partners a global media network such as News Corporation and
offers a high-quality prestigious degree. The alliance brings together partners of equal strengths in their
core areas. It provides access to a pre-existing and substantial marketplace, an understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of the medium of delivery and a means of carriage that is highly developed
and robust. The means of delivery is presumably broadcast (satellite or cable) or the Internet. Programs
are globally available in the home and workplace.
This is one scenario 'often presented to faculty at institutions other than Harvard as the
frightening future' (Reeves, UGA). It is also a scenario that seems to be strongly identified with
American institutions and media networks.
Any offerings by a globally branded institution should be highly attractive. The global
recognition of the institutional name would overcome some of the inherent difficulties of local
accreditation or standing in countries other than America and Britain. The likely focus would be at the
professional postgraduate level. James O'Donnell, Vice-Provost for Information Systems and
Computing at the University of Pennsylvania, has said that undergraduate distance-learning programs
would be more difficult to justify at Ivy League prices: "At Penn and similar private institutions, the
one thing they sell is that the people sitting next to you are smart people. Universities haven't yet
figured out how to recruit a comparatively talented pool over the Internet." (Chronicle of Higher
Education, 20 June 1997:A23)
Significant questions surround the notions of such an alliance. Why should either partner
participate? High-end institutions owe a significant part of their success to their elitist branding. Would
such an institution even want to mass-produce its degrees? Zastrocky (Gartner Group) says "Harvard
can't just mass produce. They have the means, but it would undermine their own prestige".
Finally, what of the global media networks? Would they get involved in such an alliance?
Henkin (NTG, News Corporation) says one immediate problem that springs to mind is that of
exclusivity. "If you're a distributor, you want to be open to multiple providers but an institution is more
likely to want to be the major or sole provider with perhaps some second-tier institutions underneath as
part of the service." It would also need to be economically viable. "For the private sector to get
involved they would have to see this as lucrative endeavour. If it's not a bottom-line profit-making
business then it won't happen" (Pease, International University).
Scenario 2: The Big Mac-Disney-Real Thing U
"McDonald's U … They recruit you, guarantee you a part-time job, you drop into a Bachelor's degree
and are given a job at the end. I see problems with competing with that." (Miller, GATE)
One or more corporations partner a global media network and offer education and training on
a global scale. These corporations are hugely successful at their core businesses and already are
committed to providing training for their own employees. Many have their own media networks and/or
infrastructures, guaranteeing them access to the technology and means of delivery at minimal cost, at
the same time capitalising on their core business. Once again, the means of delivery is likely to be
satellite, cable or the Internet, with a stronger focus on online media due to the ubiquity of the
workplace desktop computer and established levels of connectivity. Most of the organisations are
multinationals, providing an automatic physical and student base across the globe.
If one accepts that the core business of Disney and McDonald's is as much marketing and
customer satisfaction as developing entertainment products or making hamburgers, then this
combination carries significant market attraction. Further, we would argue that some disciplines,
including business, are more attractive to new providers and appear to convert more easily to different
models of delivery. For example, programs originating from the computing and telecommunications
companies—IBM, Microsoft and Motorola, to name but a few—would prove attractive to the market
due to the demand for technology-related learning.
It would seem obvious that this scenario has potential in the most commercially and
economically viable parts of the sector. Corporate providers have the infrastructure and financial
means, together with the 'branding' in terms of 'real-world' experience to be attractive options for a
student cohort concerned primarily with employment-related issues.
The major corporate providers were quick to dismiss notions that this scenario had potential.
Most said they were only in the business of industry-specific education because traditional institutions
were not meeting their needs. IBM spends more than $400 million annually on corporate training to
IBM staff and Verville says that while there may be some small examples of this type of alliance
around: "it's not going to be a major thrust. Increasingly corporations around the world are focussing
on core competencies, on core business. Generally, it's something they do because they have to.
They'll only do it if they get better returns on their investment than they get from making hamburgers."
Other questions surround the portability of a degree from IBM or Disney and levels of
acceptance by competing employers. "In general, lots of companies have tried to provide training for
their own employees because tertiary institutions are unwilling to do that. Most of us would prefer to
go to a tertiary institution where the degree or certificate is portable. Does a certification of
management from IBM work? I'd rather pay for an employee to do a degree from Stanford, MIT or
Harvard" (Geoghegan, IBM).
Scenario 3: Virtual U
Although the term 'virtual' tends to be equated the with Internet and World Wide Web
offerings, the virtual university could operate via a range of communication and information
technologies. However, this scenario envisages the Virtual U as heavily dependent on the Internet and,
to a lesser extent, on satellite and cable, as the primary means of delivery. Carriage may be linked to
one specific global media network (eg. Microsoft, IBM) but is more likely to involve a combination of
media organisations (eg. McGraw Hill) and media infrastructure (eg. the Internet), although Farrington
(1997: 67) calls this 'the CNN model'.
The ubiquity of communication and information technologies (CITs) suggests that the Virtual
U is, at the very least, a probable future contender in the education sector. In fact, several variations are
already under development. To succeed, the Virtual U first needs to overcome some of the
negativities—at institutional, faculty, student and industry level—that in the past have been related to
distance education. It requires robust communication networks and technology infrastructures. Quality
of content and delivery materials must be guaranteed. There must also be strong support and feedback
structures for students and lecturers. Finally, a feasible Virtual U requires off-campus solutions to
resource access issues (eg. digital libraries and multimedia data banks). Pease (International
University) says totally off-campus initiatives have to ensure they deliver what students expect from a
university. "We stopped using the Virtual U as a name. It used to conjure up a negative image—that
it's not a real university." Pedagogical issues are also problematic for critics of the Virtual U scenario.
Furthermore, there is little concrete evidence to indicate student demand or support for the Virtual U.
Scenario 4: The Open University
A large centralised education production and distribution agent, utilising a 'Fordist', ie.
industrial model team development process, sets its sights on a mass global market in order to produce
economies of scale, with some reliance on mass broadcasting media, and local student support centres
to provide both tutorial and counselling service. This model is not reliant on a specific medium or
media organisation, although both may play a significant role in the provision of education. Course
content may be delivered by a variety of technologies and be augmented by face-to-face tutoring. This
model differs from World U (Scenario 7) in that it does not source from multiple providers, uses 'LCD
(Lowest Common Denominator) media' (print and broadcast TV/radio) plus local complementary
classes, and has an established reputation for good quality education. It represents the general concept
of the UK Open University model. It appears to be transplantable—the HKOU, and more recently the
Singapore Institute of Management, were established with UKOU materials and processes, local tutors,
and local case studies, and WGU is now completing a partnership agreement with UKOU.
Campion and Renner (1992) foreshadowed the expansion of UKOU to become a
multinational centralised provider, in their term, 'a neo-Fordist model' based on 'techno-economic
paradigms' (1992:18), but they warn that a highly differentiated market would militate against this
model, since it is predicated on a mass market. Because of the recognised strong educational base,
accreditation is less of a problem than, for example, in the World U model.
The UKOU model may require an increasing move to pre-recorded video for audiovisual
material, a move to (expensive) dedicated cable/satellite programming, or to the Internet. Both the
latter choices would diminish a potential international audience and reduce the economy of scale on
which the Open University model is predicated, and also subvert the 'openness' on which the
institution has prided itself.
A more fundamental barrier is a widespread recognition that partnerships and collaborative
development, rather than the centralised curriculum/production/dispatch, are more appropriate and
practical in the coming century. For Daniel (1996:49) the OU model faces a dire choice: a 'low frills'
approach, which offers a cost advantage or appeal to a niche market via differentiation of 'product'. He
argues this is an either/or choice.
Scenario 5: Super Corridor Model
A government designates a certain area to become a 'super corridor' for media and
communications networks and infrastructures. The proposal brings together CITs with government
policy, integrating technology into all aspects of the economy, including education and training.
This scenario is geographically bound, usually sub-national, and is generally related to
establishing robust, maintainable and high-capacity infrastructures for CITs. Educational institutions
participate in the model at the direction of the nation state. This scenario was emerging in some Asian
countries, notably Malaysia, Singapore and Korea. To succeed, the super corridor scenario requires a
government that is philosophically and financially committed to the concept, with the power to compel
major cultural institutions, corporations, industries and individuals to participate. This would not
appear to be a viable option for countries that rely more on cooperation than coercion, or a 'non-
interventionist' approach (Hong Kong) vs 'a fatherly approach' (Malaysia) (Yuen, HKOU).
Scenario 6: Western Governors University
Politicians, educational providers (private and public), industry and communications and
media networks band together in a coordinated effort to make education available to students in a
defined regional area. This scenario is based on the model of the Western Governors University
(WGU) as a brokering agency.
It is reliant on strong CIT infrastructures and may involve one or more media networks such
as AT&T in a technical support role. The participating educational institutions provide content that is
then delivered using various media. A feature is competency-based assessment, allowing students to
capitalise on 'real-world learning' and pre-existing skills and abilities. All elements of the program
have been disaggregated, with fees for each component of service, including pre-enrolment
competency assessment. The system operates as a distinct entity, separated from the individual state
education authorities. Like the super corridor model, the WGU scenario relies on initial government
support. On the other hand, it can also be described as a cooperative model, as there is no compulsion
for states, institutions, students or corporations to participate.
One of the major problems with the concept is its non-coercive nature. Why should
institutions or states participate in a model of educational delivery which means they will have to share
the proceeds of any student enrolments, while requiring institutional reorganisation and change? For
example, Microsoft had 'talks early on', but declined to participate in the project (Richards, Microsoft).
There were many sceptical responses from interviewees. Bacsich (Sheffield Hallam) said some
universities have tried this approach in Europe "and failed. Consortium models are good fun for the
academics involved but they're not relevant". There remain problems of accreditation, relevance to
market demand and institutional credibility. Government support would be essential.
Scenario 7: World U
A central agency is established to broker units and courses sourced from a range of countries.
This scenario, like several others, involves new and traditional providers, delivering content and
interacting with students via several modes, including print-based, broadcast and Internet. The
brokering agency 'World U' would grant the degrees.
World U would make substantial use of multiple media. Some suggest that this is the answer
to problems with international demands for portable, accredited programs and that the elements
required to establish World U already exist. Zastrocky (Gartner Group) says it is similar to James
Miller's attempts to establish a University of the World. "His model is building a co-operative venture
globally. He's out to equate Zaire and Harvard. He's had lots of interest from the developing countries
−but not the developed nations. The best thing is to look at regional models."
Seah Chiong Tian (SIM) says World U has the potential to provide 'the best of the best' to
students through its global sourcing of courses, but notes the difficulties in coordinating such an
offering, and in guaranteeing quality control and standardisation across the program. Questions of
accreditation, articulation, language, accessibility, ownership, intellectual property and copyright
would have to be dealt with before this scenario could advance.
Scenario 8: Free Market U
Any organisation able to provide solutions to perceived educational needs does so, in
whatever way it chooses. Whether industry, a commercial or public entity or government, the
organisation can compete in the education sector, using the method of delivery and technology that it
chooses. Public and private providers, corporations and others exist side-by-side, delivering multiple,
diverse education and training programs. The market (students, employers, industry) decides whether a
program is successful and how much the degree is worth. Communication networks have as much right
to participate as any other organisation, but may be in a stronger position to compete due to their
established expertise and strengths with regard to CITs.
European, Asian and Australian interviewees were quick to identify the problems as centred
on accreditation issues, lack of quality control and existing numbers of universities. "(The) real danger
is Everybody U…aimed at the bottom end" of the market (Calvert, Virtual U). Asian respondents were,
with the exception of those in South Korea, opposed to a 'free market' or 'anything goes' approach to
the establishment of new universities. Several interviewees suggested a free market scenario would
place more pressure on universities to work with industry and to address the needs of the vocational
sector, but they forecast difficulties. "This would be a high risk response. Current accreditation
procedures are valued by employers" (O'Neil, News Corporation, Australia).
"But that's the model we (America) already have" (West, Cal State). American interviewees
have few problems envisaging such a scenario. It is not surprising that many of the new models of
education provision have their genesis in the United States, as the American educational structure is
probably the closest in the world to a free market model.
Scenario 9: Traditional with Intensifying Change
Traditional campus-based institutions offer a significant portion of their course content using
flexible delivery methods. They intensify use of CITs to support the teaching and learning processes in
a sophisticated teaching program. Some degree of on-campus and face-to-face teaching is preserved;
the actual amount varies according to the individual institution.
The quality of institutional offerings using flexible delivery varies. Some providers seize on
the technology as a means to cut costs and teach more students for less outlay and buy in commercial
packages of 'courseware'. Their infrastructural support is inadequate and online support functions
(including administration and library resources) are patchy. These institutions are not well-regarded in
the marketplace. Other providers, including some traditional face-to-face institutions, are in more
demand than ever. They have invested considerably in infrastructure, development and support
networks, after carefully investigating and working through issues related to student and faculty needs
and expectations. They make appropriate use of technology to deliver some aspects of the program, and
have effective online library and administration facilities. On-campus and face-to-face sessions are
valued and used to provide a quality teaching and learning experience. These institutions have effective
and efficient partnerships with media organisations, which may or may not be global media networks.
This scenario operates along a continuum, with significant differences between traditional on-
campus institutions at one end, and progressive multi-campus institutions at the other. Such
institutions, like Cal State, would have the potential to operate as global campuses, but this potential
may not be realised because of the missions of the institutions—many of which have a local, regional
or state focus.
The scenarios in 1998
When we completed our report in 1997, Australia was already aware of the imminent collapse
of the Malaysian economy. The 'Super Corridor' was being scaled back, and Malaysian universities
were struggling to accommodate the students forced to return to their home country after their
scholarships were withdrawn. That scenario has been blighted by economic realities.
Realities have also hit home for the supporters of WGU, which finally opened on September 3
this year. After several weeks, despite 10,000 hits on the site, only 100 students had registered in its
three courses, reportedly because of computer problems in processing applications, and continuing
problems with accreditation (Net News 17/9/1998). Its sponsoring governments have now agreed to
provide aid programs to entice students to enrol (HES , October 7, 1998 p. 29).
Such facts do not seem to have had a significant impact on the rhetoric still heralding a higher
education global market now available for the taking, and the likelihood that global media networks
will be involved – either in partnership with globally-branded providers (Scenario 1), through the
advent of totally virtual programs (Scenario 4) or as providers of the infrastructure for the world
brokering systems (Scenario 7). While these three options continue to excite attention, there have been
few advances in their development.
In contrast, the Big Mac-Disney-Real Thing U scenario appears to be growing in likelihood –
as stand-alone or hybrid options. Traditional providers appear to be responding to the perceived threats
of corporate universities by extending their alliances with business and industry, and accommodating
demands for customised learning solutions (eg Regis University, Deakin). Western governments seem
particularly drawn to this scenario as an alternative to public funding programs.
Finally, the millenarian bug – and the panic it has caused – has not been eradicated, although
the symptoms have changed somewhat. Ultimately, Intensifying Change U is the scenario most likely
to characterise the future direction of higher education around the world. Some institutions will
investigate 'quack' remedies, like 'off-the-shelf' pre-packaged solutions: the 'U-Tel' model – 'Not $1
million, not $500,000; not even $100,000. Delivery of your new 'online degree program' guaranteed in
60 days or less – but wait, there's more! You don't even have to change your courses or redesign, we
do it all for you.'
This bug, too, is likely to be insidious in its ability to mutate and replicate in unexpected and
unforseen directions. Those institutions which survive this difficult period – and emerge stronger than
before – are likely to be those which take preventative measures:
• Differentiate between reality and rhetoric
• Consult stakeholders, including students, staff, community, industry, government
• Avoid 'quick-fix' or 'miracle' cures from 'silicon snake oil' salespeople
• Keep their insurance up to date…where that insurance is quality teaching, quality content,
meeting client needs, delivering a program that is in demand, attending to the 'health' of their
institutions (including professional development of staff, conscious determination of their
unique mission and intelligent and strategic development of infrastructure).
The future shape of educational provision may resemble, at least in part, some of the scenarios
discussed in this paper. More simply, it might be reduced to three sorts of 'campuses':
• A residential college community where—for a summer or for four years—students study and
receive guidance, support, evaluation, and motivation
• A global electronic campus that students can enter via a computer, 'commuting' from home,
dormitory room, or community centre
• Continuing education and training provided at the workplace by employers and community
organisations (Rossman, quoted in Oblinger and Rush 1997:13).
References
Campion, M. & Renner, W. (1992) 'The supposed demise of Fordism: Implications for distance education and
higher education', Distance Education 13(1), 7-28.
Daniel, J. (1996) Mega-universities and the knowledge media . London: Kogan Page.
Farrington, G. (1997) 'Higher education in the information age'. In D. Oblinger & S. Rush (Eds) The Learning
Revolution ( pp. 69-71). Bolton MA: Anker.
Oblinger, D. & Rush, S. (1997) 'The learning revolution', in D. Oblinger & S. Rush (Eds) The Learning
Revolution (pp. 2-19). Bolton MA: Anker.
Acknowledgements
The original study on which this paper is based was funded under the Evaluations and Investigations
Program of the Department of Employment, Education and Youth Affairs, Canberra, in 1997-98.
Quotes are taken from Interviews conducted in mid-1997. Affiliations were correct at the time of the
interview. The following people are quoted here: Bacsich, P. Sheffield Hallam University; Calvert, T. Virtual U;
Chiong Tian, S. Singapore Institute of Management; Geoghegan, W. IBM; Henkin, M. News Technology Group,
News Corp; Man Chan, J. Chinese University of Hong Kong; Miller. B. GATE; O'Neil, H. News Corp Australia;
Pease, P. International University; Reeves, T. University of Georgia; Richards, T. Microsoft; Verville, A-L. IBM;
West, T. California State University; Yuen, K-S. Hong Kong Open University; Zastrocky, M. Gartner Group.
Media for biology - on CD-ROM and Online
Uwe Sander
Institute for Scientific Film
Germany
The German Institute of Scientific Film (IWF) is a scientific-media service provider. The IWF's service is primarily
intended to serve the research and educational communities. It now presents an interactive program, offering a
unique and rich multimedia experience: The Cell I - Life from Light an Air. It focuses on the cell - the basic
structural unit of living matter. The smallest morphological unit in any organism. So complex, that it cannot be
represented with the medium of the classic textbook, but only with state of the art multimedia. In the CD-ROM, you
can study living cells, use a virtual microscope, come into a virtual laboratory, perform the key experiments in
biology, search for missing molecules, fly through cells and explore Virtual Reality in the microcosm. Our website
cells.de offers science news, evaluated links to other internet resources and access to the world's largest library of
cell-biological videos.
Streaming 7000 films...
Uwe Sander
Institute for Scientific Film
Germany
How to create a unique source for educational media in the internet?
The German Institute for Scientific Film (IWF) is a major european non profit producer of scientific videos. It's
archives contain about 7000 films, videos, laserdiscs and CD-ROMs. These media are unique, but difficult to access
outside of Germany. They may be a source for education in most fields of science, including biology and other
natural sciences, cultural anthropology and medicine. In 1998, IWF started to publish its videos and other media in
the internet. The end of this year, about 500 media are expected to be online, including videos, Virtual Reality
(QuickTime VR and VRML) and interactive modules (Shockwave, Java).
To fulfill this task, a lot of different issues had to be addressed, including legal, technical and scientific aspects. In
the presentation, focus will be laid on technical issues. Avid systems have been used to digitize and optimize videos.
QuickTime 3.0 and Real Video has been used to render preview quality of media. For higher bandwidth, we provide
MPEG 1. A presentation of the website www.cells.de, containing about 50 videos and other media, will show the
first implementation of this educational source.
Enriching Drawing: A Three Year Project To Develop A Computer Based Learning
Package In Drawing
Robin Shaw
University of Glasgow
Scotland
Until the latest round of funding, United Kingdom Higher Education (UKHE) through the Teaching and Learning
Technology Programme (TLTP) despite an overall budget of around £75 million, has not made any sizable
investment in learning technology for art and design. Art schools have always been in the forefront of the use of
computers as tools. In design, in layout, in the manipulation of images, and in the creation of art, lecturers and
students have possibly formed the most expert group of computer users and their needs have driven some of the
most innovative packages.
However there has always existed a healthy scepticism as to whether computers have anything to contribute to
teaching and learning in art schools. This is not surprising. Apart from the provision of ready access to resources
through the internet, learning technology has been dependent on pedagogic situations where new skills or concepts
had to be acquired by the student and where the class as a whole would move ahead in expertise which would be
tested by the examination. The computer is ideal for a situation where, for example, the student has to learn the
basics of a scientific discipline. Information can be given, processes can be simulated and at each stage of the
package the student can discover whether they are understanding the material.
1
Questions can be posed and often
quite sophisticated feedback given to the student. Contrast that with the situation in art. In art there are few
certainties. The emphasis is less on facts, the needs of the student are individual and the assessment of the student
is through a piece of work demonstrating creativity and the development of ideas.
Now with a grant from TLTP of £300,000 and matching funds to give a budget of around £800,000 a consortium
of art schools and universities led by the London Institute is engaged on a three year project to create interactive
multimedia learning packages on drawing. Drawing is central to all that is produced within the broadest spectrum
of art and design. It is the core around which the conceptual and intellectual development of students takes place.
Drawing allows individuals to learn to look, to record what they see, and is used to develop thought and ideas for
artwork and for design, in both two and three dimensions.
In 1995-96 almost 5% of students in UKHE were in art and design. If related subjects with a clear interest in
drawing such as architecture, and engineering and technology, are included the total rose to almost 16%
2
. This
growth in numbers has created problems which the package seeks to address.
The approach adopted by the London Institute and its partners in the Falmouth College of Art, Ravensbourne
College of Design and Communication and the Universities of Ulster and Brighton is intended to create materials
which give full respect to the richness of the subject. The packages will come at drawing from many different
angles and controversy will be welcomed rather than shunned. In addition to a thorough treatment of the basic
skills such as drawing on paper, drawing with the computer and draughting, the programs will explore the
historical development of our understanding of spatial representation from the origins of perspective, through
drawing machines to 3D and computer graphics. In all the work the importance of how to see, how to interpret
1
Doughty, G et al, Using Learning Technologies: Interim Conclusions from the TILT Project, Shaw, R. (ed) University of
Glasgow (March 1995) 27-33
2
1 Students in Higher Education 1995-96 HESA July 1997
and how to innovate will be paramount and due weight will be given to the theoretical, philosophical and
contextual elements. Considerable use will be made of video to show practitioners at work and discussing their
particular approach to drawing.
The project got underway in June 1998 and the initial period has been spent in blocking out the areas of drawing
we wish to address and researching our pedagogical approach. The second phase of the project was to write
detailed descriptions of the planned modules focusing on the aims and objectives of the module and how the
content was to be presented and made interactive. From the module descriptions we are now moving on to
storyboarding and developing using Authoware.
There is a considerable body of evidence that in order for learning to take place effectively on the computer, the
user has to be involved in tasks where decisions have to be made.
3
The learning should be active and consequently
there is a continual pressure to find ways of engaging the student. While assessment within the field of drawing is
difficult, we are convinced that the student will gain by reviewing what has been learned and by receiving sensitive
feedback on progress, so we are exploring ways in which this can be possible.
In a project of this nature it is vital to expose ideas to the widest audience before committing them to development
and we have been disseminating information about the project to art colleges and other institutions with an interest
in drawing. To date, staff from more than seventy institutions in the UK and the USA have expressed an interest
and we are allowing them access to our deliberations. We are eager for as wide a participation as possible and
interested faculty can sign up to the list from our website at http://tltp.linst.ac.uk/.
The finished package will be distributed on a number of interlinked platform-independent CD-ROMs and we are
also investigating the suitability of DVD since that medium allows the packaging of the product on one disk with a
more than adequate space for high quality graphics. The finished product will be available to UKHE at the
beginning of 2001 though beta versions will be widely distributed for testing well before that date. As the project
progresses, prototype modules will be trialled in the classroom situation, both in the consortium partners and also
in a number of other interested institutions. From the evaluation of these prototypes, which will be carried out by
the University of Glasgow, we will make changes to incorporate what we learn from student and staff use. The
results of these evaluations will be widely disseminated. The project intends that the package will be made
available outside of the United Kingdom though its primary audience is first year degree students in that country.
Since the project is probably the largest investment ever in learning technology in art it poses a considerable
challenge. Its aims are ambitious and wide ranging and while it in no way seeks to supplant the traditional
relationship between staff and student, it intends to make a significant contribution to the richness of the learning
environment in the area of drawing. It will do this by producing products which will emphasis the development of
observation, skill and accuracy and the understanding of form and space. Though the package will encourage the
use of the computer for drawing, the focus of the materials will remain on traditional drawing tools. However it
will certainly promote the new approaches to drawing which are made possible through technology, and will aim
to improve the ability to utilise software applications for three-dimensional modeling and to enhance the teaching
of formal drawing systems such as projection and perspective. When completed it will be a valuable resource for
use in the classroom and for the independent student.
The proposed presentation will demonstrate examples of the development to date deal with project management
issues and invite discussion and participation from interested faculty.
3
Davies M., and Crowther D., 'The Benefits of using multimedia in higher education: myths and realities', Active Learning 3
(December 1995) 4-5 Oxford
Design of Web-based Learning Environments: Integrating curriculum,
technology, and professional development approaches
James D. Slotta and Marcia C. Linn
Graduate School of Education, University of California at Berkeley
4523 Tolman Hall
Berkeley, CA 94720-1670
slotta@socrates.berkeley.edu
Philip Bell
College of Education
University of Washington
322 Miller Hall Box 353600
Seattle, WA 98195
pbell@u.washington.edu
Panel Topic Summary
An increasing number of learning environments are successfully engaging students in authentic inquiry while also
promoting meaningful learning about central concepts in a discipline. These efforts are characterized by some
common characteristics:
• Computer-based activities are embedded in curriculum sequences, so computers become a learning partner,
rather than a medium for direct instruction or a generic tool
• Instructional frameworks inform the design process and provide a connection back to our theoretical
understanding of learning
• Innovations are designed and refined through multiple iterations by collaborating design partnerships that
include teachers, educational researchers, technologists, and domain experts (e.g., scientists)
• Professional development for teachers emerges as an integral component of research and development work.
This involves new technologies and materials, and typically the creation of dedicated "on-line communities."
Over the past fourteen years, our own research program has focused on promoting middle and high school students'
integrated understanding of science through the use of carefully designed and technology-rich curriculum (Linn,
1995). This effort has resulted in a framework for designing instruction called Scaffolded Knowledge Integration
(SKI), as well as several computer-based learning environments, including:
• The Computer as Learning Partner Project (CLP) << http://clp.berkeley.edu >>
• The Knowledge Integration Environment (KIE) << http://kie.berkeley.edu >>
• The Web-based Integrated Science Environment (WISE) << http://wise.berkeley.edu >
The software and curriculum used within these learning environments has included on-line lab-books to support
reflection during experimentation, electronic coaches and guidance to offer conceptual hints, Internet-based
discussion tools to help students exchange ideas, on-line design libraries to support the sharing of design resources,
computer-based argument editors to enrich discussions during classroom debate activities, and any number of
different interface designs which provided procedural scaffolding to students as they progressed through these on-
line activities. Throughout this extensive history, the elaboration and refinement of our instructional framework has
been an enduring focus and product of the work. With every new semester in the classroom, we have continued to
refine this framework, together with our understanding of how to design effective curriculum activities, and our
knowledge of how to support teachers who wish to adopt our curriculum and technology.
This panel examines the principles of this framework, describes how they are being applied to design new formats
for Web-based instruction in science, and explains how the framework can promote professional development for
both pre-service and in-service teachers. Technology can be used catalyze a shift toward new instructional practices
in classrooms, but not without careful attention to issues of curriculum, assessment, and learning.
Toward a framework for instruction with technology
Marcia C. Linn, University of California at Berkeley
Based on over a decade of research in the Computer as Learning Partner project, The Scaffolded
Knowledge Integration (SKI) framework guides the design of effective, technology rich learning environments
(Linn, 1995; Linn & Hsi, in press). My research targets scientific understanding, with particular focus on preparing
students to become lifelong science learners in a complex, changing world. In this panel, I describe how the
Scaffolded Knowledge Integration framework can guide decisions made by instructional designers. This process has
succeeded in our Computer as Learning Partner Project and Knowledge Integration Environment Project (Bell,
Davis and Linn (in press), and is currently guiding our work in two new projects: The Web-based Integrated Science
Environment (WISE) and Science Controversies On-line: Partnerships in Education (SCOPE).
An effective framework for instructional design should respond to a wide range of questions: How can we
help students gain lifelong learning skills? What kinds of guidance do students need in order to best succeed in the
activities we design? How do we capitalize on the social aspects of classrooms too often ignored by instruction? An
instructional framework should integrate the findings from abstract theories and detailed experiments into principles
that can effectively guide the design of learning technologies and curriculum.
I define knowledge integration as the dynamic process of connecting, distinguishing, organizing, and
structuring models of a particular scientific phenomenon. I use the term "model" loosely to refer to patterns,
templates, views, ideas, theories, and visualizations. In general, learners bring multiple models of the phenomenon
to any intellectual situation and regularly revise and reconnect their ideas. For example, if one wishes to instruct
students in the area of heat and temperature, a quick review of the vocabulary around these concepts suggest a broad
range of models available to students. Students may believe that heat and temperature are interchangeable, based on
verbal formulations such as "turn up the heat" and "turn up the temperature." Or they may distinguish heat from
temperature, for example, remarking that temperature refers to all of the possible degrees on the thermometer
whereas heat refers to the degrees near the top of the thermometer.
In general, students bring a multitude of models to any situation and engage in a dynamic process of
selecting among them to deal with particular problems or social interactions. Rather than viewing multiple models as
a problem, we see this as an opportunity for students to gain a rich understanding of the learning process and of the
distinction between scientific and everyday problem solving. The Scaffolded Knowledge Integration framework
helps designers create materials that invite students to develop a deeper, more connected understanding of scientific
phenomena. This view of students as "seeking connections" and instruction as "fostering knowledge integration"
stands in contrast to the conventional model of learners as receiving information and of instruction as providing
information. To design for knowledge integration, we articulate four major tenets of our framework:
Making Science Accessible: To enable students to connect new ideas to their existing knowledge, we must
assess their baseline understanding and design materials that connect to this knowledge. Effective instruction
provides opportunities for students to evaluate scientific evidence according to their own understanding, to articulate
their own theories and explanations, and participate actively in principled design. This might involve using models
of phenomena that are more accessible to students than the normative scientific models (Linn & Songer, 1991).
Making Thinking Visible: To model the process of knowledge integration teachers and software can
illustrate the wrong paths and confusions typical of scientific reasoning. To design instruction, we also need to help
students make their own thinking visible (e.g., Collins, Brown and Holum, 1991; Linn and Songer, 1991; Slotta and
Linn, in press).
Promoting Lifelong Science Learning: To prepare students for autonomous, lifelong science learning we
start with small but independent student activities that require sustained reasoning. To make such projects authentic,
we draw on students existing knowledge and incorporate scientific evidence that students find personally relevant.
In our Computer as Learning Partner project, we found that electronic coaches could helps students use such
evidence productively. Electronic coaches, carefully designed, can be just as effective and more efficient than some
forms of human coaching.
Providing Social Supports for Learning: Science learning is rarely performed in isolation from ones peers;
rather, peer exchange is often vital to learning. (e.g., Brown and Campione, 1990; Vygotsky, 1987). Science projects
should be designed to foster collaborative work, both because this will be an important skill for students throughout
their lives, and also because it is an efficient means of learning how others connect ideas. Designing an effective
social context for learning involves guiding the process of social interaction. Hearing ideas in the words of peers,
validating each others' ideas, and asking questions of peers can all foster links and connections among ideas when
carefully designed.
Science Controversies On-Line: Designing Web-based Learning
Environments around "Science in the Making"
Philip Bell, University of Washington
Exploring the Role of Controversy in the Science Curriculum: The SCOPE Project
In our schools, the current curriculum in science is more decreed than designed and these decreed curriculum
materials rarely if ever discuss current or historical controversies in science. Most scientists spend their time
working at the forefront of knowledge where controversy is the rule (Latour, 1998), but students rarely glimpse this
aspect of science (Driver, Leach, Millar & Scott, 1996). Instead, well-meaning individuals create goals, texts, and
assessments that are never subjected to the process of principled design and neglect important aspects of "science in
the making." While scientists proceed along the lines of controversy, school science tends toward didactic
presentation of known facts, leading students to develop incorrect ideas about the nature of science content and
scientific process. Students can profit from activities that focus on current scientific controversies, evidence, and
scientific arguments. They can observe scientists who debate different hypotheses or contribute different
perspectives, and create their own scientific arguments through carefully supported learning activities.
Web-based learning environments can be designed to support students in this process. The Science
Controversies On-Line: Partnerships in Education (SCOPE) Project is developing controversy communities of
scientists and science learners, focusing on controversies that concern leading research scientists and also connect to
interests of citizens, such as the prediction of earthquakes or the control of malaria.
A Prototype SCOPE Community on Deformed Frogs
Consider the following example. Over the past few years an apparent increase in physical deformities among frog
populations has been observed in parts of this country. The deformed frog controversy represents a complex,
multidisciplinary problem involving environmental, genetic, and chemical arguments. We have been involved in an
multidisciplinary partnership—between classroom teachers, integrative biologists, educational researchers, and
computer scientists—focused on building a Web-based curriculum project (using the WISE learning environment
shown below) that allows students to explore this controversy and communicate with scientists about the topic.
Since it is a current scientific controversy, the project allowed seventh-grade students in an urban middle school not
only to learn about a cutting-edge science topic but also to experience central aspects of the scientific process itself.
We have documented large shifts in students' images of science: exploring an authentic scientific controversy in
process allows students to develop a dynamic understanding of the process of scientific progress while also
developing a more integrated understanding of the science content. The design principles we are developing based
on our research on students' cognition will guide the development of new learning environments on numerous
scientific controversies in a way that makes them accessible to students and citizens alike.
The Deformed Frog Web-based Curriculum Sequence (http://scope.educ.washington.edu/frogs/)
A knowledge integration approach to professional development:
Enabling teachers to succeed in adopting new practices
Jim Slotta, University of California at Berkeley
The Web-based Integrated Science Environment provides science teachers with powerful new tools and approaches
to bring knowledge integration activities into their classrooms. However, even when presented with a well-designed
technology like WISE, teachers require significant levels of support to adopt new pedagogical concepts and
methods. For example, teachers need to understand that technology is not an end in itself, and that the Internet must
be used carefully to promote learning. Also, despite advances in our development of pedagogical approaches that
promote conceptual change (see Linn, 1992, Slotta and Chi, 1997), the majority of middle school and high school
science teachers still employ more traditional approaches to teaching science. (Poole and Page, 1996) Thus, teacher
professional development has emerged as an essential component of our research in the WISE project. In order to
support teachers with powerful instructional technologies, we must help them gain new understandings about
effective curriculum activities and classroom practices.
This challenge has provided us with the incentive and opportunity to research effective approaches to
professional development that empower teachers with new ideas and approaches. We designed an on-line
community to help teachers learn about the WISE pedagogy and technology as they prepared to use it in their own
classrooms. This community was designed as a self-sustaining professional development resource for its members,
who continue their interactions during and after the school year. It has also served as a research tool, enabling us to
understand teachers' initial ideas about using the Internet in their classrooms, as well as the effectiveness of our
materials and approaches. Our professional development curriculum is delivered via the Internet, by means of this
WISE on-line community, and consists of the following three components:
(1) The WISE Teacher NetCourse that scaffolds teachers as they gain understanding of our pedagogical
framework, known as Scaffolded Knowledge Integration. The NetCourse is delivered in the form of a WISE
Curriculum Project (Figure 1) where teachers learn about our technology and approaches by actually using it.
(2) Teachers join the WISE On-line Community where they receive feedback and support from other teachers as
well as from WISE on-line mentors. The community supports electronic discussions (Figure 2) to help
teachers in their own process of knowledge integration, as they explore new ideas about professional practice.
We have applied our framework of scaffolded knowledge integration in designing the materials for this
community – seeking to connect to all teachers' ideas and support their creation of personal understanding
(3) WISE Project Forums have been developed to help teachers succeed in using specific WISE Curriculum
Projects in their classroom. Each Project Forum includes a wide array of specific supports to help teachers
succeed. For the WISE Deformed Frogs Project, shown in Figure 2, we provide links to a demo of the
curriculum, explicit lesson plans and example student work, electronic discussions about how to help students
succeed with the project, and the WISE classroom management tools (e.g., for assessment and student work).
Figure 1. WISE Teacher NetCourse Figue 2. On-line discussions within the community
Issues In The Design, Development And Implementation Of An
Alternative Delivery Format Master's Degree In Instructional
Technology
Michael Szabo, Ph.D., Forum Organizer, University of Alberta
mike.szab@ualberta.ca
Craig Montgomerie, Ph.D., University of Alberta
craig.montgomerie@ualberta.ca
David Mappin, Ph.D., University of Alberta
david.mappin@ualberta.ca
Annette Fuchs, M.Ed., University of Alberta
<annette.fuchs@ualberta.ca>
Edmonton, AB Canada
Overview
The purpose of this forum is to describe the process, issues and some solutions encountered in
converting a university-based Masters Degree in Instructional Technology to an alternate delivery format
(ADF). Beginning in 1994, courses in this degree program have been converted to one or more ADFs. By
the summer of 1999, the core courses in the program will be available in ADF format and have been piloted
at least once.
The team involved in the conversion has wrestled with numerous issues that will be discussed during
the forum. Some of the issues are:
• What are ADFs and which are useful for our purpose?
• To what extent should the entirety of the courses be placed in ADF?
• How do we deal with conveying expert's knowledge via ADF?
• How do students obtain access to the resources needed to complete the courses?
• What data should be tracked and how will it be tracked?
• What issues arise from building a non-conventional degree in a conventional, research-oriented
university?
• What is the reaction of students, who are by and large majoring in instructional technology?
• How does one build an infrastructure to promote ADF courses and degrees?
• What is the role of face to face (F2F) instruction in ADF?
• What is the return on investment on course development for ADF?
• What skills are crucial to successful development? What is the role of a design team?
It is expected that others at EDMEDIA 99 are grappling with similar issues and would appreciate
hearing how one institution deals with them, discussing their particular situation with respect to ADFs,
providing feedback to the forum leaders and networking with others at the conference about these issues.
Background
The University of Alberta has been a leader in the field of Computer-Based Instruction since it acquired an
IBM 1500 System in the middle 1960s. The leadership continued when the 1500 system was replaced by a
PLATO system, later to be replaced by micros, videodisc, CDs, LANs, WANs, the Internet and most
recently the WWW. Many of the faculty members who participated in these early systems now form the
core of the graduate program in Instructional Technology (IT).
Throughout that period, extensive research and development on many phases of CBI were carried out.
This work could not have been done without the extensive participation of graduate students, many of
whom have continued and excelled in the field (e.g., Donald Tapscott, M.Ed. 1978; Greg Kearsley, Ph.D.
1978). Informal masters and doctoral degree programs arose within the Department of Educational
Psychology to accommodate these students.
In 1978, the University formalized its Masters degree in Instructional Technology by officially
establishing it within the Faculty of Education. Due to a number of factors, such as budgets, changes in
organizational structure, and individual personalities, a 'formal' Ph.D. program was not initiated until 1998
with the admission of four doctoral students into the Basic Area of Educational Psychology.
Events in the past several years have provided impetus to explore ADFs for the Masters degree. These
include a recent mandate by the provincial government to increase access for our programs to more
students, both on and off campus, increased levels of funding, and a growing recognition by the
administration of the potential of ADF.
A Brief History of ADF in the Department of Educational Psychology
Statistics
While the course in introductory statistics is not a specific IT course per se, it is a required research course.
Historically, the course was originally developed in the early 1960s for delivery on the IBM 1500 system.
Budget cuts in the early 1990s suggested a reduction in courses across the Faculty, including the statistics
courses. The complete 3 credit graduate course was resurrected, polished, updated, and reconstructed using
Authorware. It is delivered via CD-ROM with a unique twist. All student data tracking is done via the
WWW, meaning of course that delivery can take place anywhere in the world. There is even a facility to
update the user with any modules that have been changed since the CD was shipped.
Introduction to WWW
Around 1996, and effort was made by Professor Montgomerie and graduate student to develop a course
whose content is the Internet and the WWW and to deliver the course on the WWW. This course 'broke the
ice' and encouraged others to participate. At the same time, the Faculty decided to follow the
recommendation to bring the main IT players together in the same office area, regardless of home
departmental affiliation.
Additional Key Developments
In 1997, a formal reconfiguration of the Masters program was undertaken. In 1997, work began on
developing the course on EDIT 571, Introduction to Educational Technology and Communication for web-
based delivery, which we call Web-Based Instruction (WBI). This course, as well as two undergraduate
courses in IT were funded in part by the University and in part by a special funding mechanism established
by the provincial government to stimulate increased access to education on the part of the citizens of the
province.
In 1998, partial funding was received to create three more core courses in the Masters in IT program;
EDIT 568, 572 and 573. These courses have been developed and piloted at least once at the time of this
writing.
Issues Considered Along the Way
This forum will provide insight into some of the issues listed below along with opportunity for the audience
to discuss and network.
What are ADFs and which are useful for our purpose?
There are numerous applications and variations of the term ADFs. In general, we mean any instructional
alternative to conventional lecture-seminar format. In contrast, distributed education means delivery to
both on and off-campus students. Should the course formats be different for these two groups? Given that
the Masters degree uses the content of IT, both the content and the methodology need to be discussed,
demonstrated and practiced.
To what extent should the entirety of the courses be placed in ADF?
What is gained and what is lost by moving entire courses to ADF? What is the role of F2F in the delivery
of instruction? Given that there will be an on-campus group as well as an off-campus group, how should
any differences in opportunities be resolved? Should all learning activities be placed in ADF, for example,
does the technology allow for effective dialogue and debate?
How do we deal with conveying expert's knowledge via ADF?
A particular problem we face is that most of our IT faculty have lived through the days of CBI and have a
wealth of experience and scars to show for it. Can we convey that experience in ADF? Conveying
experience is important but not the only factor. Focussing on early approaches to Computer Based
Instruction, for example, can detract from the differences and emphasis in the new work on computer based
learning environments, constructivism, situated learning, and so forth. Furthermore, what design should be
chosen? There is the issue of student choice over knowledge of essential content, as judged by the
connisseur professor. How are the disagreements within the group about what essential content should be
handled?
How do students obtain access to the resources needed to complete the courses?
A course which requires only reading material has a slight advantage over IT courses, which require that
students have access to some of the latest, most powerful and expensive hardware and software, such as
Authorware, NT Servers, and so forth. How is this equipment to be provided in ADF? This raises issues
related to the choice of technologies, such as WWW, synchronous audio or videoconferencing, mailed CD-
ROMS, videotape, and fax.
What data should be tracked and how will it be tracked?
Performance and communication data can be delivered easily on the WWW but systems to track and make
use of that data are still somewhat primitive and difficult or time-consuming to construct in terms of
programming, database access, and so forth. What should be tracked is an interesting question particularly
if assignments are made where assessment by judgements made on analysis and writing are deemed
important.
What issues arise from building a non-conventional degree in a conventional, research-oriented
university?
Promotion, tenure, and the occasional deafening lack of interest are but many of the issues to be faced in
this category. As members of the Education Faculty, we are privileged that our research and course
development activities can coincide. What has been the experience of some of our colleagues and what
changes seem to be in the future?
What is the reaction of students, who are by and large majoring in instructional technology?
Student involvement in building ADF-courses and their reaction are always important issues. They are
particularly crucial when the students are studying IT as opposed to studying other content domains using
IT.
How does one build an infrastructure to promote ADF courses and degrees?
ADF courses imply a certain infrastructure to develop and maintain. These include not only hardware,
software and telecommunications, but support, encouragement, and active participation by administration.
There is also the issue of providing an example to other departments and faculties, such as Adult and
Higher Education, Library, and the creation of a generic M.Ed. program.
What is the role of face to face (F2F) instruction in ADF?
Is F2F instruction required in all situations? Where can it be optimized and where can it be dispensed
with? Is there a body of evidence that argues for or against effectiveness, efficiency and optimality of
learning with or without F2F? Does it take more work to teach a course with significant group and
Computer Mediated Communication components? A related issue is the conflict with the potential of ADF
and the mental models held by many current university instructors. Communication difficulties tend to be
amplified and take longer to resolve, particularly where asynchronous communication is involved. This
may be a trade off for the inability of an instructor to address individual questions in a large class of more
than 25 students.
What is the return on investment on course development for ADF?
Most educational institutions view ADF as a cost, and an add-on cost at that, without considering either the
return on the investment or the cost of not implementing ADF. There are often to erroneous cost
comparisons to conventional instruction where not all the costs are considered or calculated properly. The
presenters will provide data on development in one of the current courses in the M.Ed.
What skills are crucial to successful development? What is the role of a design team?
A sampling of skills would include instructional design, experience with ADF in its wide ranging formats,
knowledge of strengths and weaknesses of interactive instructional media, project management, evaluation,
content and political astuteness. Large scale efforts require a team of individuals who can execute these
skills and solve disagreements without resorting to fist fights!
Other issues
How do students learn the needed skills for ADF which they do not possess? How does one handle the
purchase and distribution of books, software and other learning resources? What minimum system
configuration is required and what are the implications for course design? How good is good enough
related to costs of development? What is the price of effectiveness over efficiency? How does one resolve
myriad infrastructure issues when implementing ADF in an institution which has been designed for on
campus and F-2-F learning? What are some of the issues in moving to global deliver, such as
telecommunications, acceptance of foreign credentials for admission and differences in culture, language
and educational systems?
Forum Presenters
The forum organizer, Professor Michael Szabo, has been centrally involved in ADFs since 1970 and
designed the original Masters degree in IT at the University of Alberta. Discussants include Professor
Craig Montgomerie, Professor of Educational Psychology and Policy Studies, Professor David Mappin,
Professor of Educational Psychology and Policy Studies. Michael, David and Craig have been involved in
the field of IT since the 1960s'; have authored hundreds of papers and articles in the field; directed major
CBI research, development and evaluation projects; worked on mainframe, mini and micro CBI systems;
and consulted internationally. Annette Fuchs, Research Assistant has been involved in the development
and validation of many of the courses. She completed the Masters in IT in 1998 and is now pursuing the
Ph.D. degree.
Relevant Links
The courses under discussion can be examined through this link:
http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/IT/
A short list of publications by members of the forum can be examined at:
http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/IT/research/
Page 1 of
Support offered User Performance Speed, Memory, Effort, and Comfort by
Package Features
Jennifer D.E. Thomas, Ph.D., Associate Professor
Pace University, 1 Pace Plaza, N.Y., N.Y. 10038
Email: jthomas@pace.edu
It is suggested that ease of use of a package may be evaluated as a function of the support which design and
assistance features offer user performance speed, memory, effort and comfort. Features provided in software which
are believed to alleviate the human shortcoming of limited memory capacity include databases, macros, menu
structures, mnemonics, icons and templates. Macros, commands to bypass menu structures and shallow menus are
all features designed to minimize the user's effort. Shallow menu structures and commands have been found to be
faster than deep structures as have menus redesigned according to frequency of use. Use of natural language
systems may or may not require the same amount of time to use and yet be considered more comfortable than other
interaction methods. Text size and placement, use of figures, graphics, color, sound, highlighting, etc. are all
features which contribute to the appeal of the package. Also, conceptual models provided by the system or
developed by the user have also been found beneficial to the user. A package will be easier to use and learn when
support of these factors by packaage features is greater. In this paper, the support for these factors are examined in
the Human Factors and Learning literatures, relative to specific package design and assistance features.
Multimedia Cases in Teacher Education: Towards a Constructivist
Learning Environment
Ellen van den Berg
University of Twente
P.O. Box 217
7500 AE Enschede
The Netherlands
berg@edte.utwente.nl
Introduction
This paper is about the integration of multimedia cases in elementary science teacher education.
These cases have been developed within the framework of the MUST-project (MUltimedia in Science &
Technology). The MUST-project is a joint venture on behalf of three Teacher Education Colleges, the National
Institute for Curriculum Development and the University of Twente in the Netherlands. The project aims at
developing multimedia cases for the professional development of prospective teachers in elementary science
and technology education. In the first project year two working prototypes on CD-ROM were developed.
During this year the MUST-team became increasingly aware of the significance of the implementation of
multimedia cases in teacher education programs. This paper ends with the notion of flexibility-in-use that in
our opinion is a promising way to reconcile the voice of theory and the voice of practice.
Multimedia cases and a constructivist learning environment
In this section the design of the MUST multimedia cases are described according to principles for the
design of constructivist learning environments (cf. Honebein, 1995). This description is not limited to the
cases themselves, but, if appropriate, also the broader scope of teacher education programs is taken into
account.
Embed learning in a realistic and relevant context
Non-scripted edited video of (an) elementary science lesson(s) forms the core of every MUST-case.
These video clips are both a realistic and relevant context for prospective teachers. The clips are edited in a
way that they provide ample opportunity for practising analysis and contemplate action (cf. Merseth, 1996).
So, they are not meant to follow uncritically. On the contrary they intend to stimulate reflective thought and
communication. These activities are also supported by assignments in which prospective teachers are
encouraged to analyse the video from different perspectives and use these knowledge constructions in planning
and implementing elementary science lessons themselves.
Different perspectives and multiple modes of representation
The MUST CD-ROMS include comments on the lesson by the video-teacher, experts, and prospective
teachers. So, students are provided with experiences from different perspectives. However, there is some
controversy among specialists in case-based instruction about whether or not to include experts' comments into
a case. For instance, Merseth (1996) thinks those comments may inhibit the construction of knowledge by
novices. When novices have read what "experts" say about the case, they may tend to abandon or suspend their
own beliefs in favor of the "delivered wisdom" (p. 733). On the other hand, Shulman (1992) argues that, for
example, experts' comments provide additional perspectives or lenses through which to view the events of the
case. So, they add complexity and richness that gloss rather than simplifying or trivializing the events (p. 12).
In the MUST-project the use of multiple modes of representation has been applied in different ways. Firstly,
the earlier mentioned edited non-scripted videotapes and audio comments on the video represent science
lessons in elementary classrooms in different modes. Moreover, other modes of representation are depicted by
all kinds of textual information.
Ownership an voice in the learning process
A third design principle is to warrant ownership and voice in the learning process by prospective
teachers. This implies that they are encouraged to reflect on their knowledge construction processes and take
responsibility for setting learning goals and pursue learning processes. In the design of the CD-ROMS of the
MUST cases this principle has been applied by constructing an open non-linear interface. A second, and more
important, way to account for this design principle is to formulate assignments that have an open character and
stimulate the users to reflect on their learning processes.
The voice of practise: teacher educators
Especially the four teacher educators in the MUST-team refer repeatedly to the issue, that students are
not familiar with working in a constructivist learning environment. The teacher educators question how much
responsibility their students may handle. Moreover, they are worried about their role both in terms of their
responsibility and in terms of practical implications. The former point may be illustrated by a remark of one of
the teacher educators: she stated that it is her responsibility to do her utmost that students will reach the
predefined learning objectives, so she wants to implement one of the multimedia cases in a rather traditional
setting. This setting consists of a science method course, which is assessed by a uniform test for all students.
The latter point consists of concerns of teacher educators to assign all different types of more open assignments,
such as portfolios. Or as one of them formulated it: For time reasons it is simply impossible for me to grade all
these assignments.
Conclusions: towards flexibility-in-use
In this paper a dilemma is sketched between the ideal of multimedia cases in a constructivist learning
environment and the reality of teachers and students in teacher education programs. In order to overcome this
dilemma, the MUST project introduced the notion of flexibility-in-use. This notion implies that, especially,
teacher educators have a considerable freedom in the way they want to use the multimedia cases, because from
an implementation perspective it is neither possible nor desirable to impose a change in practice on teacher
educators. By doing so, we take the warning of Louden and Wallace (1994) seriously. They warn reformers
not to fall into the trap of the constructivist paradox. This means that reformers press teachers to make the
transformation from conventional to constructivist practise in a single step. We opt for a more realistic reform
agenda in which learning to teach with multimedia cases is perceived as a process of gradual reformation and
elaboration of teacher educators' established patterns of teaching.
References
Honebein, P.C. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments. In B.G. Wilson
(Ed.), Constructivist learning environments (pp. 11-24). Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology
Publications.
Merseth, K.K. (1996). Cases and case methods in teacher education. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research
on teacher education (pp. 722-746). New York: Macmillan.
Building Online learning Communities for Teaching and
Learning,which integrate Online Multi Media.
Tony van der Kuyl
University of Edinburgh
Scotland
James O'Brien
University of Edinburgh
Scotland
Introduction
Those who teach must espouse and exemplify in all their activities those values which will underpin professional
life, given International, National and local technology initiatives(see Appendix 1 for Scottish initiatives) which in
the next 36 months will rapidly develop the role of ICT in all areas of the profession and learning and teaching, it is
essential that the teachers and their institutions develop strategies which begin to build on-line staff and student
learning communities. These initiatives will enhance the quality of teaching and learning in class and lecture rooms,
and provide a teaching environment where many of the new competencies required by new millenia educators in the
use of ICT can be exemplified through their own teaching and learning process.
Using Multimedia to support mentors
Simon Walker
University of Greenwich
United Kingdom
Abstract: This paper reports on the development of a new system for training mentors of student
teachers in Post Compulsory Education & Training (PCET) by a team of educational practitioners
at the University of Greenwich with little previous experience in multimedia development. It's
rationale is discussed in the light of the difficulties of providing training and support. A solution is
proposed with regard to Dearing's National Committee of Inquiry (1997) into Higher Education in
the UK, which states that, in cases where other methods have failed, improvements in motivation
and understanding may occur through the use of new technology. The system combines the
development of an Interactive Multimedia Learning Environment (IMLE) with an On-Line campus.
The prototype is discussed and issues of design heuristics are raised.
Context
The Post Graduate Certificate of Education programme for pre-service full-time students is taught jointly by staff at
the University of Greenwich and by staff in their own institutions throughout the student teacher's work experience.
The programme is delivered over a single academic year. Between 250 - 350 students each year are taken on and are
trained to be teachers in a variety of academic and vocational subjects. Each student teacher is supported by a
subject mentor in a range of culturally and geographically diverse PCET institutions. The mentor has two basic
generic tasks encompassing a range of subsidiary roles that need to be performed. Firstly, the mentor organises
appropriate teaching experiences and secondly, the mentor supports the student teacher's professional development
in teaching their subject areas. The mentor's ability to respond to the student teacher's professional development
hinges on their own understanding of the relationship between the knowledge, skills and processes of mentoring and
the support provided by the University for them in this role.
Following research conducted by questionnaire with 10 university tutors and 117 student teachers, a number of
factors were identified as affecting the quality of mentor training.
(a) Diminishing resources resulted in a lack of time for any sustained level of support for training the mentors.
(b) The difficulty of arranging F2F meetings because of issues of physical distance and/or clashes with timetables.
Research was also conducted with 36 subject mentors to confirm the acceptability and content of using an ITC
system for supporting them in this role.
A proposal to develop interactive multimedia using hybrid CD ROM technology was supported jointly by the
School of PCET and Academic Development Group at the University of Greenwich. It was seen as a possible
solution to the above problems for a number of reasons:
• interactive multimedia environments may extend the setting and amplify opportunities for learning in a dynamic
way
• CD-ROM technology is relatively inexpensive and allows the storage of large amounts of (non-editable)
interactive support material
• by using the potential of hybrid CD-ROM, the integration of web browsers with embedded links makes
communication with an On-Line Campus with dedicated sites for supporting mentors possible.
Design heuristics
Learning how to develop and produce interactive multimedia involved a significant learning curve. For many of us,
the greatest educational technological development over the last fifty years has been the Overhead Projector. Unless
we are able, as educationalists, to harness the new technology we may be missing out on the ability to provide
significant opportunities for our learners (Dearing,1997; Higginson,1996). A team was set-up comprising a project
manager and a number of consultants who evaluate content, design and production and assist with On-Line Campus
IT support. We considered a number of principles and values to influence the design and production process:
(a) Content is informed by primary and secondary research.
(b) A contemporary approach to learning is taken
(c) Metaphor is used to develop interface design
(d) An iterative design process (development - testing with end users - development) is used to ensure accessibility
and user-friendliness.
(a) Research.
Mentoring is an evolving field of research. It was critical to combine an understanding of current good practice and
link this with our own local research carried out in our particular context. For example, interactive learning contracts
were constructed in response to the local view, held by student teachers, which confirmed their beneficial use.
Student teachers also reported, for example, on the value of well-managed first meetings. Interactive approaches
were devised to assist mentors to manage time and environment issues for first meetings. Sound bites and video
clips of some of our student teacher's experiences are used to provide authenticity and context.
(b) Constructivist principles of learning
We chose to reject traditional instructional design favoured by much training material, which tends to rely on the
circulation of existing knowledge (Boyle 1998). Instead we favoured the use of Constructivist principles of learning;
design strategies are considered which engage the user in their own construction of knowledge - the production of
knowledgeability rather than the reproduction of knowledge (Guile & Young 1997). For example, users are
encouraged to prioritise emotional events, create lists and agendas for meetings, identify and analyse needs, select
and structure the content and derive their own understanding through problem solving. These activities are
supported by a system of scaffolding that uses resources like prompts and hints as tools to help mentors reflect on
their understanding and progress. The use of the resources and the results of interactions permit the user to construct
their own understanding. This is further developed by links to the On-Line Campus, (using Lotus Notes as the
medium) which provide the mentors with the opportunities to `problemitize' their role and share their ideas,
confidentially, through conferencing with other mentors and tutors. The aim is to create distributed networks of
knowledge and a `virtual' mentor community
(c) The physical nature of the environment.
A major dilemma that faced us was how to physically combine an effective interface with an appropriate structure.
This represents the major factor governing the continued use of the environment. Metaphor is a powerful tool for
developing content, structure and navigation and our first task was to evaluate the use of metaphors in other
interactive multimedia learning environments. Many used a formal hierarchical structure based upon domain
knowledge. We felt that a functional, minimalist approach (Carroll 1990) would be more effective in appealing to
mentor / teachers who are busy people and need to engage with information quickly on a need to know basis. The
main navigational device that has been developed is a time-line which links content with hints of when to best learn
processes and perform activities. An overview permits the mentor to catch up on missed information and to better
manage their mentor tasks. Although the roots of mentoring lie in the notion of apprenticeship, its origin is located
in Greek mythology. This provided a useful visual metaphor that is used in the interface.
(d) Evaluation.
Mentors, tutors and trainee teachers evaluate the software as it is developed. We use criteria such as clarity,
interactivity, richness and accessibility. We consider iterative prototyping to be highly effective as a means to
development. We have found that the semi-structured interview, questionnaire and videoing users in action are very
useful tools that provide instructive feedback - critical to the development process. The development of IMLEs is
similar to a construction site - a slow process of initial design, implementing plans, building structures, weathering
storms & putting right mistakes. We have made necessary alterations to the navigational devices used, the number
and range of elements, the structuring of content and use of metaphor towards the refinement of the product.
Conclusion
The project is still under construction, however initial evaluations have suggested that Dearing's conclusion
regarding the use of Communications and Information technology might provide a basis for (a) improving the
quality of professional mentoring in the workplace and (b) an investigation into the effectiveness of using hybrid
CD-ROM technology to establish virtual communities.
Bibliography
Boyle T. (1997) Design for Multimedia Learning. Prentice Hall
Carroll, J.M. (1990) The Nurnberg funnel; designing Minimalist Instruction for practical computer skill. MIT Press
Guile & Young (1998) Journal of Education and Training Vol .50, No 2
Dearing (1997) National Inquiry into Higher Education. HMSO
Report of the FEFC Learning and Technology Committee (Higginson Report) (1996) FEFC
Using Multimedia to support mentors
Simon Walker
University of Greenwich
United Kingdom
This poster session will demonstrate the work in progress of an interactive multimedia learning environment (IMLE)
for training mentors of student teachers in Post Compulsory Education & Training. The system combines interactive
multimedia with an On-Line campus linked to the University of Greenwich's home page with dedicated mentor
conference areas.
A functional, minimalist approach is used for the structure and interface. The main navigational device is a time-
line which links content with hints of when to best learn processes and perform activities. This functional device
also permits the mentor to catch up on missed information and to better manage their mentor tasks. The content has
been informed by local research with mentors and student teachers. Although the roots of mentoring lie in the
notion of apprenticeship, its origin is located in Greek mythology. This provides a useful visual metaphor for the
interface.
Topics for discussion may focus on:
- the transferability and adaptation of 'interactive modules' to capitalize on economies of scale
- the development of virtual communities
- user-friendliness
An Investigation into Faculty Attitudes Regarding
Distance Learning Instruction
Dr. Gail West, College of Education,
University of Central Florida, gwest@pegasus.cc.ucf.edu
Carol S. Halfhill, Department of Management,
College of Business, University of Central Florida, USA, halfhill@mail.ucf.edu
This research, conducted by Gail West and Carol Halfhill, investigated the affects of faculty
attitudes concerning distance learning instruction. Previous research indicated there are significant
negative faculty perceptions of and attitudes toward distance learning which may be a barrier to its
implementation. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the Theory of Planned Behavior
could be used to predict which faculty might be encouraged to participate successfully in instruction
using distance learning technology. Specifically this research studied faculty attitudes, the perceived
attitudes of peers, as well as faculty beliefs in their ability to be successful with instruction via distance
learning technology. The investigation was modeled after Icek Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior, a
well documented intention model that has successfully predicted and explained behavior in a wide
number of behavior-related areas. The theory suggests that attitudes regarding a behavior as well as
motivation to perform the behavior can be measured and this measurement can be used as a predictor
of actual behavior.
A quantitative and qualitative study was conducted to determine if the theory successfully
predicted a faculty member's intention to instruct a course using distance learning technology. A
survey of faculty in the Florida State University System, which is comprised of ten accredited public
universities within Florida, was conducted. A stratified random sampling of faculty chosen by a
random number generator method was obtained from the 1997-98 faculty lists in the college catalogs
from each of the ten universities. Selections from each institution were adjusted proportionally to
insure each institution was properly represented. In an attempt to insure that the survey would include
faculty who have experience with distance learning technology, efforts were made to add faculty to the
survey mailing list who had taught a variety of courses via distance learning using either interactive
television or the World Wide Web.
Faculty members were questioned regarding their intention to instruct a course via distance
learning during the 1998-1999 academic year as well as their attitudes regarding distance instruction.
They were also surveyed on their perceptions of their peers' attitudes regarding distance learning.
Finally, faculty were asked items to determine how successful they expected they would be if they
taught a course via distance learning. The three constructs, faculty members' personal attitudes, the
attitudes of their peers, and the strength of their belief in success form the foundation of Ajzen's theory.
Survey items were constructed to measure the power of each construct. Personal attitudes, peer
attitudes, and belief in success were combined mathematically according to Ajzen's model to measure
intention. Qualitative interviews were also conducted to further explore the survey results.
Faculty returned 345 usable survey instruments representing a 60 percent return rate. Of
those responding, 73 percent were male with 27 percent female. Mean age was 50 years. Of those
who indicated, 68.2 percent were tenured, 15.2 percent were on a tenure track and 15.2 percent were
non-tenured. Instructional experience ranged from none to 51 years with a mean of 17.8 years. Past
distance experience was limited among the respondents: 65 percent of the respondents had no previous
distance instruction experience. Of those with pervious experience, most had taught between one and
five courses. The majority did not intend to instruct using distance learning technology: 67.3 percent
described themselves as very unlikely or unlikely to instruct using distance learning technology.
Findings revealed that the Theory of Planned Behavior could predict correctly a faculty
member's intention to instruct a distance learning course 83 percent of the time. The theory predicted
with great accuracy those faculty who do not intend to instruct via distance learning (93.9 percent). It
had less success predicting faculty who do intend to instruct (56.6 percent).
The research highlighted the importance of peer influence in a faculty member's decision to
instruct or not instruct at a distance. More than half (52 percent) of the faculty who intended to instruct
at a distance reported they felt their peers thought they should be involved in distance instruction.
Only 3 percent of those who did not intend to instruct thought their peers believed they should teach a
course using distance technology. Approximately 79 percent of faculty who intended to instruct at a
distance reported that faculty members they respected were involved in instruction via distance
learning. Only 31 percent of those with no intention to instruct at a distance reported respected faculty
members involved in distance instruction.
While the faculty sensed strong university support for distance learning, the role of the
department chair appeared to play a significant role in how strongly the administration's goals for
distance learning are implemented. Over 79 percent of faculty who intended to instruct via distance
learning believed their chair supported distance learning instruction while only 45 percent of faculty
who did not intend to instruct via distance learning believed their chair supported distance learning
efforts.
Exposure to distance learning seemed to reduce faculty anxiety. Faculty with distance
instruction experience expressed fewer reservations regarding distance learning and were more positive
about its benefits. While 65 percent of faculty with previous distance instruction experience thought
distance courses maintained academic rigor, only 26 percent of those with no distance experience
expressed confidence in the academic rigor of distance courses. Only 20 percent of those with no
distance experience were comfortable with their ability to interact at a distance; 67 percent of those
with distance experience were confident of their ability to interact.
Other factors appear to influence a faculty member's intention to instruct via distance
learning technology. Gender and tenure status were statistically significant. Female faculty members
were more likely to have a greater degree of confidence in distance learning instruction, know a
respected faculty member involved with distance instruction, feel peer pressure to instruct at a distance
and consider themselves risk takers. Tenure track and non-tenured track faculty expressed similar
indicators regarding distance instruction. Age was not a statistically significant indicator.
Faculty responding to the survey confirmed concerns expressed in the literature regarding
distance learning. Worry over interaction, heavier workload, the need for new instructional skills, lack
of technical support, and professional concerns were expressed. Forty percent of those who intended
to instruct distance learning classes agreed that technology may be used to replace faculty; 44.2 percent
of those who do not intend to instruct distance courses agreed.
The research concluded that university administration can support faculty efforts in distance
learning instruction by providing release time to compensate for the heavy time commitment distance
learning courses appear to require. Evaluation for tenure and promotion should be adjusted to reward
faculty efforts in this area. Other support services popular with the survey respondents include salary
enhancements, adequate computer systems, student assistants and technical support. Administrative
officials may want to create opportunities to spotlight successful distance instruction and support
mentoring efforts in an attempt to allay faculty concerns.
Recommendations for further research included the suggestion to further explore the
interaction of gender, age and tenure status in determining a faculty member's intention to instruct a
distance learning course. Although this research was not designed to explore such issues, there were
intriguing hints that gender may be a stronger determinant of a faculty member's intention to instruct
distance courses than age or tenure status. It is also possible that there was not enough diversity in the
respondents' demographics and further research may lead to greater insight.
References
Ajzen, I. (1989). Attitude Structure and Behavior. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler and A. G.
Greenwald (Ed.), Attitude Structure and Function (pp. 241-274). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates
Freberg, L., Floyd, B. & Marr, K. . (1995). Faculty attitudes toward distance education. Journal on
Excellence in College Teaching, 6(2), 145-159.
Web-Based Testing in Distance Education: Challenges and Implications
C. James Wong
Learning Resources Division, Belleville Area College, Belleville, IL 62221, U.S.A.
E-mail: wongcj@smtp.bacnet.edu
Introduction
Distance education has gained general acceptance in American higher education (Moore &
Kearsley, 1996; Saba, 1997). Among a variety of instructional delivery media, the Internet, especially the
World Wide Web, has been commonly adopted by many distance education programs (Khan, 1997; Porter,
1997). As educational providers will often need to validate students' learning outcome, testing on the
Internet is becoming a reality (Chute, Sayers, & Gardner, 1997). However, one may not be successful as a
distance instructor by simply transferring classroom-based testing strategies to the distance education
environment. This paper addresses issues on how tests can be administered on the Web, the difficulties of
Web-based testing, and the implications of these challenges in a distance education setting.
Web-Based Testing Tools
Many distance education programs utilize a Web-based course delivery and management software.
For example, about 1,200 American higher education institutions have adopted WebCT. Similar products
include CourseInfo, LearningSpace, and Web Course in a Box. Some testing features have been
incorporated into most of these products, but functionality and features tend to vary from one to the other.
There are also software vendors that develop Web-based test authoring and delivery tools, such as
QuestionMark and CAT. Such tools are usually better designed and have more features than the Web-
based course delivery and management software mentioned above. For instance, they have test analysis
functions such as determining test item difficulty level and generating statistical reports. However, the
costs of these tools could be rather expensive.
Objective Testing
Traditional objective tests with question types such as true or false, multiple choice, and matching
can be created, administered, and immediately graded via the Web by most of the Web-based testing
packages. Feedback can be provided to the student right after an answer has been submitted and graded,
allowing the student to check his or her understanding of the course content and thus promoting the concept
of testing as a learning tool as well.
Fill-in-the-blank type of questions must be carefully authored. Specifically, the instructor will
have to include as many correct answers as possible for each question to the database of the Web-based
testing software. For instance, the instructor has to determine whether matching the case in an answer is
significant or not, provided that the Web-based testing package is capable of checking the case matching of
an answer.
Subjective Testing
Some researchers are working on an artificial intelligence tool to evaluate student writing by
comparing it with a number of model essays previously parsed and analyzed by the computer, but the
reliability of this experimental software is questionable. At this point, students can submit their answers to
essay test questions to their instructors via the Internet (e.g., Web-based e-mail, Web form submission, or
file upload on the Web server), and instructors will have to grade these subjective tests manually.
Test Security
Distance education provides the availability of learning opportunities to students without the
boundaries of time and space. Separated by time and space from their students, how can instructors know
for sure who has actually completed an examination?
Even with the advanced technology such as fingerprint checking, if students at a distance take an
examination with no supervision, it would not be possible to ensure the integrity of the examination. The
following could happen if a proctor is absent:
- students can copy test question items that will become insecure for future recycling,
- students can take it as an open-book, open-note examination, and
- the examination can be taken by a different person from the enrolled student.
It is suggested that students be required to arrange for an approved test proctor who follows
guidelines provided by the distance learning institution (Chute, Thompson, & Hancock, 1999).
Consequently, in many distance education programs, students must complete the examinations in a
proctored environment at a library or school, and proctors are usually teachers, school administrators, or
librarians who are selected by the student and approved by the distance learning institution (Moore &
Kearsley, 1996). However, sometimes it might be difficult to identify the qualifications of a proctor when
he or she resides in a remote state or in a foreign country. Furthermore, shipping and handling could be
time consuming due to custom check and wait between countries.
Alternative Evaluation Methods
Because students have the ability to collaborate with others if a test is not proctored, some
instructors use Web-based testing only for quizzes, but not for examinations. However, with the
permission of the instructor, such collaboration (students are working on these quizzes together) could be a
very positive cooperative learning activity (Chute, Sayers, & Gardner, 1997).
Instructors should consider evaluating a multiplicity of evidence of students' learning outcome,
such as participation, writing assessment, portfolio assessment, and teacher-based assessment (Harrasim,
Hiltz, Teles, & Turoff, 1997). Requiring students submitting multiple drafts of their work is another way of
checking their learning progress and reducing the chance of plagiarism.
While these non-traditional forms of testing and evaluation do not eliminate the possibility of a
student cheating, they reduce it to a level of insignificance (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Summary
Web-based testing software packages open an innovative way to delivering tests at a distance.
Without the kind of traditional test administration that requires the presence of a proctor checking students'
identification and watching for cheating, the integrity of the test cannot be maintained. It is important that
the faculty and administration responsible for distance education (1) be aware of the strengths and
limitations of Web-based testing software, (2) determine appropriate adoption of evaluation strategies that
best match the course goals and design, and thus (3) strive for an accurate, valid, and reliable assessment of
student learning performance or competency at a distance.
References
Chute, A. G., Sayers, P. K., & Gardner, R. P. (1997). Networked learning environments. In T. E. Cyrs
(Ed.), Teaching and Learning at a Distance: What It Takes to Effectively Design, Deliver, and Evaluate
Programs (pp.75-83). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chute, A. G., Thompson, M. M., & Hancock, B. W. (1999). The McGraw-Hill handbook of distance
learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Harrasim, L., Hiltz, S. R., Teles, L. & Turoff, M. (1997). Learning networks: A field guide to teaching
and learning online. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Khan, B. H. (1997). Wed-based instruction . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Porter, L. R. (1997). Creating virtual classroom: Distance learning with the Internet . New York: Wiley.
Saba, F. (Ed.). Future of post secondary education. Distance Education Report , 1 (1). [On-line].
Available: http://www.distance-educator.com/Gov.html
Acknowledgements
The author would like to gratefully acknowledge the support from Mr. Philip Carlock, Mr. Ken Turner, and
Belleville Area College.
Selecting Internet Technologies to Support Interactive Teaching and Learning at a Distance
C. James Wong
Learning Resources Division, Belleville Area College, Belleville, IL 62221, U.S.A.
E-mail: wongcj@smtp.bacnet.edu
Introduction
Apparently the Internet is becoming increasingly accessible to Americans; according to the Associated Press, there are 74 million
Internet users in the United States (Gearan, 1999). The U.S. Department of Education (1999) reports that, in 1998, 89% of public schools have
access to the Internet, and 51% of all American classrooms are connected to the Internet. This paper examines the advantages and limitations of
various Internet technologies so that educators can make appropriate decisions to select and utilize them to facilitate interactive teaching and
learning in a distance education program.
Traditional Distance Education Programs
Traditional distance education was considered as non-mainstream instruction by many educators because they thought such distance
instruction could not be truly interactive. For example, enrolled in a correspondence type of independent study course, students might not be able
to ask question or receive feedback from the author who wrote the course or a tutor/instructor who is a content expert; that is the nature of
independent study, some explain. Likewise, television courses rely on one-way communication.
Internet Technologies
Until comparatively recently, education has been influenced by the transformation into an information society (Chute, Thompson, &
Hancock, 1999). By employing various Internet technologies, information such as pedagogical dialogues and content materials can be exchanged
between the instructor and students and/or among students themselves with ease and immediacy. The Internet is being used as supplementary
communication channels after class in both face-to-face courses and distance education courses that utilize interactive video. Meanwhile, more
and more higher education institutions are delivering Internet-based (on-line) courses to students at a distance (Barnard, 1997; Khan, 1997;
Moore & Kearsley, 1996; Porter, 1997).
A typical Internet-based distance education environment incorporates a combination of technologies to deliver instructional content
and foster interaction, with the technologies matched to the course goals and design. There are a variety of communication and collaboration
tools available, and it is essential to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the most common asynchronous and synchronous communication
tools.
Asynchronous Tools
Advantages Limitations
- It is easy to use.
- It is a fast, inexpensive communication channel.
- Information transferred is not limited only to text.
- There are numerous different software packages for e-mail available. During communication
between users with different e-mail software, e-mail messages and/or attached files might lose
their formatting and will not be viewable.
E-mail Discussion List
Advantages Limitations
- It provides a discussion forum for students.
- Students tend to access the list postings more often while checking their personal e-mail.
- This one-to-many communication medium is useful for sharing documents, peer review, and peer editing.
- Because students do not have to meet at any certain time, working on collaborative group projects is convenient and
flexible.
- Students who are hesitant to speak up in a face-to-face classroom environment will contribute more to class
discussions in this type of environment.
- It is also possible to archive discussion lists.
- Participant's mailbox can get
overloaded with messages,
especially in large classes and
when the use of the e-mail list is
required.
- Discussion lists also require
good electronic-moderating skills
on the part of the teacher.
Discussion Bulletin Board
Advantages Limitations
- It has similar features as an e-mail discussion list.
- Messages do not reside on one's e-mail in-box.
- Discussions may be threaded.
- It is fairly inexpensive.
- Participants might not check messages posted if not motivated.
- It also requires good electronic-moderating skills on the part of the teacher.
Synchronous Tools
.Text Chat
Advantages Limitations
- They can help to build a community of learners, and allow
students to get to know each other better.
- They also foster immediacy and social presence and are useful
for brainstorming activities.
- Because they are a completely textual communication medium,
they allow classes that use them to focus on writing. Everything
that is uttered, created, or described must be typed in as text,
forcing us to recognize the power of the written word.
- Hardware and software requirements are minimal.
- There are many different ways to do chats on the Internet: for instance, closed
conference chat, MUDs and MOOs, web-based chat, Internet Relay Chat, and so on.
- Limitation of interoperability implies that a user of IRC cannot chat with a user of
MOO.
- They require good typing skills.
- Conversations tend to overlap in a large class.
- The differences in time zones must be dealt with.
- They also require good electronic-moderating skills on the part of the teacher.
Collaboration Tools
Advantages Limitations
Internet collaboration products allow people at multiple sites to conference simultaneously and
offer a wealth of collaborative features including:
- application sharing where multiple parties to view and edit a file in an application (e.g.,
Microsoft Word) on one of the participants' computer.
- whiteboard that provides freehand drawing tools around a canvas. Most whiteboards can also
paste files copied from other programs such as word processors and spreadsheets.
- text-chat, file transfer, audio conferencing, and video conferencing.
- There are many different products out there, each
with their own strengths and weaknesses and different
features. For instance, not all of them include video
conferencing capability.
- Some may also require additional hardware
accessories.
- The initial learning curve for some packages can also
be steep.
Desktop Video Conferencing
Advantages Limitations
- It allows users to send and receive video, audio, and text in real time via the Internet.
- Some support two-way point-to-point video conference, while others support point-to-point
conference, multi-point conference, and/or one-to-many broadcast.
- Some products like White Pine's CU-SeeMe and Microsoft NetMeeting have most of the
features of collaboration tools mentioned above.
- Conference participants are not required to use the same platform and software as long as their
software complies with the same videoconferencing standards.
- They are inexpensive, and some can be downloaded for free like Microsoft NetMeeting and
Cornell University's CU-SeeMe.
- Problems with slow frame rates and with audio break-
up are possible at low bandwidths.
- Multi-point video conference might require the use of a
group video conferencing server.
- Video conferencing requires that all users have audio
and video hardware: for example, digital cameras,
speakers, microphones, and sound cards.
- The initial set-up and customization of bandwidths can
be somewhat of a challenge.
Conferencing/Messaging Software
Advantages Limitations
- It contains synchronous tools like e-mail and discussion board and asynchronous tools like chat.
- Conferencing systems like FirstClass or Lotus Notes offer the advantages of accessing information, downloading it,
and working offline (thus reducing the Internet connection charges).
- These systems can incorporate both public and private areas.
- The systems are generally very stable.
- They are generally easy for both faculty and students to use.
- They have the ability to transfer text, audio, graphics, and application-dependent files without format loss problems
that might happen with e-mail.
- The costs for the licensing and
hardware required to run the
system could be quite costly.
- These systems can also require
extensive technical support and
administration skills.
World-Wide Web
The Web has become the most powerful communication tool since it is capable of most of the functions of the asynchronous and
synchronous tools outlined previously. For example, E-mail can be sent and received on the Web, E-mail discussion list can be archived on the
Web, closed conferencing software are geared toward a web-based interface, and online chats and discussion boards are built on the Web as well.
As far as Internet-based distance education is concerned, the Web is the predominant medium for course content delivery.
Summary
The Internet can make great strides in providing alternative and flexible availability to quality instruction and a variety of resources
that otherwise would be inaccessible. Quality and cost-effective instruction can be made available around the world through distance education
with the appropriate use of the Internet technologies. By examining the advantages and limitations of these Internet technologies, educators can
choose the right tools to meet the instructional needs and allow distance learners to accomplish the expected competencies in their distance
learning experience.
References
Barnard, J. (1997). The World Wide Web and higher education: The promise of virtual universities and online libraries. Educational Technology,
37(3), 30-35.
Chute, A. G., Thompson, M. M., & Hancock, B. W. (1999). The McGraw-Hill handbook of distance learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gearan, A. (1999, January 14). A New breed of Internet surfers. Washington: The Associated Press.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Porter, L. R. (1997). Creating virtual classroom: Distance learning with the Internet. New York: Wiley.
U.S. Department of Education. (1999). Internet Access in Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994-98. (NCES Publication No. 1999-017).
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to gratefully acknowledge the support from Mr. Philip Carlock, Mr. Ken Turner, and Belleville Area College.
Designing and Implementing Web-Based Instructional Systems
Michael D. Chen
Eastern Illinois University
Media Service
Charleston, IL, U.S.A.
cfdxc@eiu.edu
http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfdxc/
Many have predicted that the Internet, particularly the World Wide Web, will transform education. But the claimed
potential will not come automatically. Without careful and deliberate design that takes into consideration the
specific conditions and constraints of various educational settings, the much hailed Web will only prove to be an
empty promise. As more schools are connected to the Internet and more teachers and students become increasingly
interested in using it in their teaching and learning, the need for easy-to-use and meaningful Web tools has grown
dramatically. So far, the tools available are either not really easy-to-use or meaningful for many teachers, whose
primary concern is teaching instead of technology. For example, while applications like Adobe PageMill, Microsoft
Internet Assistant, and Netscape Communicator have made it easier to produce HTML documents, the technical
skills required to use HTML documents for teaching and learning (linking, serving and managing them on the Web)
are beyond most users. Moreover, many existing tools bear little explicit pedagogical connection to the classrooms.
Designing of eWeb and HomePage Maker
There has been a growing interest in using computers to enhance instruction and learning through collaboration,
which resulted in a number of network-based learning environments. These environments often focus on a specific
domain or discipline and are often embedded with a set of particular pedagogical beliefs. Furthermore, these
environments often require a set of unique hardware and software or a combination of several packages. Most of
these environments run on local networks. There have been relatively few environments that support the entire
process of instruction, from the preparation of instruction to performance assessment for the instructor and from
accessing learning materials to collaborating with peers for the students, over a global network.
eWeb and HomePage Maker, two integrated education environments, exemplify a framework that strives to balance
technological innovations, educational changes, and classroom realities.
The conceptual framework for eWeb and HomePage Maker consists of three basic arguments:
• Adoption precedes change. For any intended change to occur, the innovation has to be adopted by the
teachers and students first.
• Realization is re-creation. The process of implementing an innovation is in essence a process of re-creation
in which teachers and students re-interpret the innovation in their own terms. Thus the realization of an
innovation often reflects a set of compromises between old and new ways of doing things.
• Learning is the evolution of knowledge. Human beings are active and fallible creators of knowledge that is
refined through criticism.
Therefore, the goals of designing eWeb and HomePage maker are (1) to promote adoption of the Web as an
education environment, (2) to foster, not impose, pedagogical changes by supporting re-creation, and (3) to
encourage the evolution of knowledge (for both teachers and students).
Implementation
In order to realize the goals set forth during the designing phase, the following principles underline the
implementation of eWeb and HomePage Maker:
1. Fully integrated: eWeb and HomePage Maker consist of an array of inter-linked tools for both teachers
and instructors throughout the learning process. An integrated application enables teachers and students to
interact at multiple dimensions, analyze the same data with various tools, and achieve multiple goals within
a single application. It has also been suggested that fully integrated applications are more likely to be
adopted by schools and teachers.
2. Global collaboration: Since eWeb and HomePage Maker use the standard Internet protocol, it enables
global collaboration. Moreover, the system was designed to facilitate both intra- and inter-school
collaboration among teachers and students. Teachers from different institutions can work on the same set of
teaching materials at the same time. They can also co-manage a collaborative learning project for their
students. Students can not only collaborate in projects with collaborators assigned to them, but also initiate
new projects and find new collaborators. Both students and teachers can use a public information area to
contact other eWeb users to find potential collaborators.
3. Transparent and common technology: First of all, a standard Web browser is used as the user interface.
Technically, the software a user needs to learn is the browser, which can be expected to be fairly easy since
many already use it for other purposes as well. Second, the platform independent nature of the Web makes
it unnecessary for users to switch from one platform to another, which often causes discomfort. Third, it
allows users to reuse what they already have and are comfortable with. It saves time and the frustration
when users have to learn several applications. For example, a user can input course contents in three
different ways: typing directly into the browser's text field, copy and paste from a word processor, or
upload a text file. Lastly, they have built-in structures and mechanisms to help users manage and distribute
contents on the server without knowing anything about HTML, cgi, or file transfer protocols.
4. Flexibility: To promote adoption and re-creation, eWeb and HomePage Maker are designed with maximum
flexibility in terms of pedagogical beliefs and management styles. Pedagogically, they provide tools to
support both traditional and newer ways of teaching and learning. While some tools are explicitly designed
to help students develop higher order thinking skill through collaboration, others also allow teachers to
develop and administer objective tests. In terms of management, they not only allow teachers to have
administrative control of their students, but also allows them to change the format and mode of many built-
in functions.
5. Facilitating knowledge construction and refinement : Criticism is key to learning, but social pressure often
precludes criticism among peers. To encourage critical feedback, eWeb provides optional protection of
identity in its chat and forum sections. Exchanges of information can be set at different modes, from
completely anonymous to identifiable. eWeb also provides mechanisms for users to revise their
contributions before making them available to others. To help the learners see the knowledge growth
process, the revision history is archived.
6. Evolution of knowledge and skills: Instead of providing a fixed set of instructional materials, eWeb remains
open-ended to maximize flexibility for use and future growth, to be adapt to the growing knowledge and
skills of each user. Each group or class can choose any combination of tools and activities based on their
needs and skill levels.
7. Data reduction/management: eWeb not only enhances communication and collaboration, but also provides
ways to help make sense of the information generated. eWeb keeps record of its users' activities. Thus
when a user logins, he or she is informed of what has been completed and what needs to be done. eWeb
also allow users to trace their performances. For example, a teacher can quickly generate an electronic
portfolio for a particular student or every student in his class.
... The complexity stuck in advanced technology and learning objectives seems confusing to some academic researchers. Milrad (1999) shows that some tools can be considered as "too advanced" for children. Therefore, he focuses on a dynamic educational way of thinking that exhibits a strong relationship between structure and behaviour and not if children could learn faster and/or more effectively (Milrad, 1999). ...
... Milrad (1999) shows that some tools can be considered as "too advanced" for children. Therefore, he focuses on a dynamic educational way of thinking that exhibits a strong relationship between structure and behaviour and not if children could learn faster and/or more effectively (Milrad, 1999). ...
... The difference of opinions between these authors could be caused by the target groups addressed in their respective studies. Milrad (1999) focusses on the children's goal while other authors' studies, such as Coyle (2009); Klopfer (2017) and Schminder et al. (2019) focusses in higher education goals. In any case, the more recent studies (Klopfer, 2017); (Schminder et al., 2019) have found the balance between the freedom of exploring one's own area of interest and ILOs to archived the interest of the teacher towards the objectives required for the students. ...
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![Jessica Grzech]()
This study brings together key research issues in design collaboration and education for children. The research described here includes software design and empirical studies with participants. The conclusions are positive even though future testing will be necessary to achieve conclusive results. The multi-user VR games looks promising to foster collaboration in informal education. Designing a Collaborative Educational Immersive Playground is a research project for children under 12 years old. The exploration of empathy and collaboration is important at an early age of the children's development, although with VR, the environmental dimension is not well known and developed for this target group. This thesis explores the differences by designing in a physical and virtual environment and the improvement of those worlds for the final design of a virtual game that influence positively on collaboration and social skills in real life.
... Milrad, [17]). Since Socrates and Plato, we have been in the conventional model of class. ...
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![Bijin Philip]()
- R Lakshmi Shetty
- Lijo P Thomas
- J Manoj
The petrifying and extreme impact of COVID-19 has shaken the world to its core. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused the biggest interruption in the history of education systems, affecting almost 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries on all continents. When most of the world is experiencing an e-learning boom as the aftermath of the COVID-19 crisis, the situation arose many challenges on the execution and effectiveness of online classes in the rural regions. The present study aims at exploring the views and opinions of students in the state of Karnataka in India who switched to online classes due to lockdown which was not their choice, rather the only option available. This study reflects the feasibility of virtual learning in the higher education system during the COVID pandemic, explores the different variables that positively and skeptically affects students in virtual learning, and inspects the impact of virtual learning on student's contentment. The paper employs a quantitative approach to analyze the perceptions of students on online learning. The results of the study indicate the aspects that 2334 encouraged students to support virtual learning and those aspects that need to be improved to ensure effective teaching-learning in the online scenario. Improving the quality of education provided, activities for engagement and maintaining of social relationships, and scope for participation in co-curricular activities will improve the student satisfaction score in online learning. This study indicated that at present the students are more satisfied with the physical classes. Even though the present crisis is alleviated, the scope of a blended teaching-learning method of online and offline classes might be continuing. Hence the findings of the present study will help instructors to improve the learning experience of their students.
... This is because, basically, the media used is effort-oriented in providing real experiences to students [7]. Interactive is a term that refers to learning that is effective and efficient and interactive is a manifestation of learning itself, where learning is a process of interaction carried out by students [8,9]. ...
... The experiments which are hard to control, or they are too dangerous, expensive, difficult or impossible to conduct in laboratory settings can be simulated in virtual reality (VR) [4]. With the introduction of virtual work in the educational process, students begin to understand the essence of phenomena and complicated issues through visualization and independence from the experiment [5][6][7]. ...
... This is indicated by the teacher's low ability to administer Islamic Education (PAI) learning and concepts in accordance with the latest curriculum. Then followed by a literacy in technology, skills in this field are inevitable because in fact, the revised 2013 curriculum has "forced" teachers to design lesson plans to create and fill in student learning assessments that are the product of ability to this field (Meiers, 2007), (Milrad, 1999), (Rogala & Lindström, 2005). ...
This research aimed to show the unpreparedness of Islamic Education (PAI) teachers in planning, implementing, and assessing the learning based on The Revised 2013 Curriculum at the elementary school. This type of research was descriptive qualitative. Data collection was conducted with purposive and snowball. The data source of the study consisted of school principals, Islamic Education (PAI) teachers, and students in three primary schools, namely SDN 08 , SDN 12, and SDN 04 in Lembah Melintang District, West Pasaman Regency, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Data collection techniques were done through observation, interviews, and documentation. Then the data analysis procedure was carried out in three levels, namely data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. This research also found two notable things: first, generally teachers were not ready to teach Islamic Education in the aspects of planning, implementing, and evaluating student learning outcomes. Second, the unpreparedness of the teacher to teach Islamic Education is caused by internal factors, namely the teacher itself and externally, the lack of the supporting facilities of the school where the teacher carries out his work. More fundamentally, the readiness to implement Islamic Education learning in accordance with the The revised 2013 curriculum that is caused by internal factors. PAI teachers are not well supported by external factors.
... Professional knowledge work can no longer simply continue from a fixed educational background, rather education must be efficiently incorporated as part of work activities fostering growth and exploration. Similarly, knowledge workers require educational tools and environments to learn and create, (Milrad, 1999). Disseminating skills where they spread their thought to the targeted customers effective and efficient way (information contextualized to the task ) ...
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![Nuzhath Khatoon]()
ABSTRACT The Professional knowledge worker is often employed in a knowledge intensive organization whose primary concern is intellectual work [Alvesson 2001]. Professional knowledge workers always work in organizations that recognize the value of knowledge and have processes and technology that support and leverage the creation and application of it. Most of the knowledge workers work in IT industry and these workers are intrinsically motivated and perceived their jobs as important and worthy for themselves as well as for the IT industry. The present study is based on the IT Team leaders. The sample size is 30 IT professionals. The objectives of the study are to find out the challenges of these workers in dynamic environment and factors of satisfaction with the quality of work life. Due to change in technology the challenges are fast and efficient, hence they require cognitive learning. The study shows that much of the knowledge workers achieve the satisfaction with growth opportunity and involvement in decision making. KEYWORDS: Cognitive Learning, Professional Knowledge Worker, IT Industry
... Professional work can no longer simply proceeds from a fixed educational background; rather, education must be smoothly incorporated as part of work activities fostering growth and exploration. Similarly, children require educational tools and environments whose primary aim is to help cultivate the desire to learn and create, and not to simply communicate subject matter divorced from meaningful and personalised activity (Milrad, 1999). ...
Traditionally, behaviouristic models have been used for the design of many interactive learning environments. In contrast, we propose a pedagogical model based on social constructivism and phenomenography, which we believe is more adequate when, for instance, information seeking and the use of the WWW are natural components in the learning situation. To see learners as persons who continuously alter their conceptions and ideas by working with data, information and knowledge, i.e. to see learners as knowledge workers, corresponds well with social constructivism and phenomenography. Frequently, the design of interactive learning systems focuses exclusively on computers and the virtual environments they provide, excluding the physical environment. We believe that the design of learning environments based on a combination of physical and virtual artefacts will enhance the learning experience. In this paper we present our efforts in exploring the implication of two learning theories, phenomenography and social constructivism, for the design of learning environments that combine physical and virtual (computer-based) media.
This research aimed at discovering genetic diversity of Rhizopora mucronata in the Timor Island, in which it could be implemented as learning sources on the genetic course based on local natural resources. There were two stages of this research, namely quantitative-qualitative descriptive research, and development research used 4D model. 16 mangroves vegetation existed in the Timor Island were taken as the sample of research. Samples were analyzed at the Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory and Plant Physiology, Tissue Culture and Microtechnical Laboratory, Brawijaya University. Field test was carried out in 5 th semester of Departement of Biology Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Kupang. The results of this study indicated that the genetic diversity values of (He) R. mucronata were 0.666. The highest value of genetic diversity (He) was in Sumlili, Abudenok, and Tanjung Bastian (0.667), while the lowest value was in Sulamu and Tanjung Tuamese (0.664). Based on the results of dendrogram, generally the R. mucronata grouping was not related to the geographical position. Distant populations tended to form one subgroup. The analysis results of genetic diversity were further developed into leaflets, in which it had been validated by the experts. The mean scores of quality assessment of teaching materials were 3.755, while the mean results of material assessment were 3.755. The results of field test or wider scale test show that leaflets used as teaching materials are included in the effective category or can be declared as effective learning resources.
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![Hermann A. Maurer]()
In this paper we show that the WWW Technology Hyperwave is a good basis for the development of a GEneral Networked Teaching and Leaming Environment (GENTLE). After a short introductory section we discuss some features of Hyperwave that relate to educational matters. We then present a summary of GENTLE as it is currently being implemented phase by phase.
- Peter Lloyd
- Roger Whitehead
Lotus Notes is one of the most successful and versatile groupware products on the market today and is used widely in both large and small organisations. Transforming Organisations Through Groupware - Lotus Notes in Action contains a selection of carefully chosen case studies which illustrate the implementational, organisational and commercial consequences of using Lotus Notes. These case studies have been chosen for their international appeal and, unlike other books on Lotus Notes, concentrate on the added value that can be gained by using Notes - rather than on the technical aspects of how to make the software work.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2375285_Designing_an_Interactive_Learning_Environment_to_Support_Children%27s_Understanding_in_Complex_Domains
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